Console Information

Console emulator

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A console emulator is a program that allows a computer or modern console (cross-console emulation) to emulate a video game console. Emulators are most often used to play older video games on personal computers and modern video game consoles, but they are also used to translate games into other languages, to modify (or hack) existing games, and in the development process of homebrewed demos and new games for older systems.

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[edit] History

By the mid-1990s personal computers had progressed to the point where it was technically feasible to replicate the behavior of some of the earliest consoles entirely through software, and the first unauthorized, non-commercial console emulators began to appear. These early programs were often incomplete, only partially emulating a given system, and often riddled with computer bugs. Because few manufacturers had ever published technical specifications for their hardware, it was left to amateur programmers and developers to deduce the exact workings of a console through reverse engineering. Nintendo's consoles tended to be the most commonly studied, and the most advanced early emulators tended to reproduce the workings of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), and the Game Boy (GB). Programs like Marat Fayzullin's iNES (which emulated the NES) and VirtualGameBoy (GB), the Pasofami (NES) and Super Pasofami (SNES), and VSMC (SNES) were the most popular console emulators of this era. A curiosity was also Yuji Naka's unreleased NES emulator for the Mega Drive, probably the first software emulator running on a console.

Bloodlust Software's NESticle, version x.xx

In April 1997, Bloodlust Software released version 0.2 of NESticle. An unannounced and unexpected release, NESticle shocked the nascent console emulation community with its ease of use and unrivaled compatibility with NES ROM images. NESticle arguably^{[citation needed]} provided the catalyst with which console emulation took off: More and more users started experimenting with console emulation, and a new generation of emulators appeared following NESticle's lead. Bloodlust Software soon returned with Genecyst (emulating the Sega Genesis), and others released emulators like Snes9x and ZSNES (SNES). The rise of the console emulation community also opened the door to foreign video games and exposed North American gamers to Nintendo's censorship policies. This rapid growth in the development of emulators in turn fed the growth of the ROM hacking and fan-translation community. The release of projects such as RPGe's English language translation of Final Fantasy V drew even more users into the emulation scene.

[edit] Legal issues

This article or section deals primarily with the United States and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.
Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

As computers and global computer networks continued to advance and emulator developers grew more skilled in their work, the length of time between the commercial release of a console and its successful emulation began to shrink. Many fifth generation consoles such as the Nintendo 64, the Sony PlayStation, and sixth generation handhelds, such as the Game Boy Advance, saw significant work done toward emulation while still very much in production. This has led to a more concerted effort by console manufacturers to crack down on unofficial emulation. Because the process of reverse engineering is protected in U.S. law, the brunt of this attack has been borne by websites that host ROMs and ISO images. Many such sites have been shut down under the threat of legal action. Alongside of the threat, link rot has occurred at several links without update to the webpages.

Another legal consideration is that many emulators of fifth generation and newer consoles require a dumped copy of the original machine's BIOS in order to function. As this software is a copyrighted work and typically not accessible without specialised hardware, obtaining them generally requires the user to obtain the file illegally.

On the other hand, commercial developers have once again begun to turn to emulation as a means to repackage and reissue their older games on new consoles. Notable examples of this behavior include Square Enix's re-release of several older Final Fantasy titles on the PlayStation, Gameboy Advance, and DS; Sega's collections of Sonic the Hedgehog games. The most recent, and probably the most notable example is Nintendo's Virtual Console, which comes packaged with their new seventh-generation system, the Wii and allows for emulation of NES, SNES, Nintendo 64, Sega Megadrive, TurboGrafx-16, MSX and Neo Geo computer games.

[edit] Other uses

One advantage to ROM images is the potential for ROM hacking: amateur programmers and gaming enthusiasts have produced translations of foreign games, rewritten dialogue within a game, and applied fixes to bugs that were present in the original game. Software that emulates a console may be improved with additional capabilities that the original system did not have, such as anti-aliasing, audio interpolation, save states, online multiplayer options, or the incorporation of cheat cartridge functionality.

Sega Smash Pack 1 and 2 for PC used a Windows port of the emulator KGen.

The Xbox 360 is not natively backwards-compatible with original Xbox games (due to the differing system architectures) and so backwards-compatibility is achieved through an emulator designed by Microsoft. The PlayStation 3 (with the exceptions of the discontinued 60g and 20g versions which are played through physical PS2 and PSX hardware) uses one emulator to run PlayStation games, as well.

The Game Boy Advance rereleases of all NES titles in the Classic NES Series line were emulated.

Neo Geo (console)

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The Neo Geo is a cartridge-based arcade and home video game system released in 1990 by Japanese game company SNK. The system offered comparatively colorful 2D graphics and high-quality sound. A major platform for arcade games at the time, the system was also available as a costly home console. The two versions of the system were known as the AES (Advanced Entertainment System, the home version) and the MVS (Multi Video System, the arcade version). The Neo Geo was marketed as 24-bit, though it was technically an 8/16/32-bit multiprocessing system.

[edit] History

Initially, the home system was only available for rent or for use in hotel settings, but SNK quickly began selling the system through stores when customer response indicated that people were willing to spend the money. Compared to the other consoles of the time, the Neo Geo had much better graphics and sound.

The home system featured two CPUs: a 16/32-bit Motorola 68000 main processor running at 12 MHz and an 8-bit ZiLOG Zilog Z80 coprocessor running at 4 MHz. A custom video chipset allowed the system to display 4,096 colors and 380 individual sprites onscreen simultaneously, while the onboard Yamaha 2610 sound chip gave the system 15 channels of sound with seven channels reserved specifically for digital sound effects.

The console was planned to debut at $599 USD and included two joystick controllers and a game (either Baseball Stars or NAM-1975). However, this plan was quickly scrapped and when the system had its national launch, it debuted at $649.99 with two joysticks, a memory card, and a single pack-in game, Magician Lord (the early Neo Geo boxes had a gold sticker announcing the inclusion of Magician Lord over the initially planned choice of two games), this package was known as the "Gold System". The system was also released in a "Silver System" package, which included one joystick controller and did not include a game or memory card. Other games cost $200 and up each. With these "premium" prices though, most gamers weren't able to afford the system and so the console was only accessible to a niche market.

The Neo Geo was driven into cult status partially by changing mainstream tastes, which soon demanded flashy 3D graphics. Even after the console ceased production for the home market, the quality of Neo Geo games kept it alive in arcades, particularly in Japan, where the newest installment of its flagship franchise The King of Fighters caused a stir with every new release.^{[citation needed]}

The last game by SNK for the Neo Geo system, Samurai Shodown V Special, was released on October 19, 2004. SNK decided to abandon the hardware due to the rampant piracy of games built for the system, which SNK believed was partially responsible for its bankruptcy in 2000.^{[citation needed]} SNK ceased to manufacture home consoles by the end of 1997, but software for both formats and arcade hardware was produced for many years after. Measured from the introduction of the arcade hardware in 1990 to the release of the last home cartridge in 2004, the Neo Geo's 14-year official span of support from its manufacturer makes it the second longest-lived arcade or home console system ever produced. Only the Atari 2600, which was supported from 1977 until 1992, had a longer lifespan.

A new cartridge-based game call Last Hope was released for the home console in 2006 by the independent NG:DEV.TEAM, running at 60 fps and showcasing the continued ability of the Neo Geo even sixteen years after its debut. The game features both hand-drawn and CG graphics with transparency and lighting effects as well as a techno soundtrack.

On August 31, 2007, SNK stopped offering maintenance and repairs to Neo Geo home consoles, handhelds, and games.^[1] However, they will continue to repair their arcade hardware.

[edit] Emulation

The GameTap subscription service currently includes a Neo Geo emulator and a small library of Neo Geo games.

In February 2007, Nintendo announced on their Japanese website that Neo Geo games would appear on the Wii's Virtual Console in Japan; announcements in April and July confirmed placement on the North American Virtual Console,^[2] ^[3] and on October 1st, a similar announcement was made for the European Virtual Console^[4]. NeoGeo games were made available on the Australian and European Virtual Console on October 5th, and North American Virtual Console on October 8th.^[5] The first three games released were Fatal Fury: King of Fighters, Art of Fighting, and World Heroes.

NeoGeo games released on the Virtual Console cost 900 Wii Points ($9 USD) in all regions.

[edit] Technical aspects

Each joystick controller was 280mm (width) x 190mm (depth) x 95mm (height) ( 11 x 8 x 2.5 in.) and contained the same four-button layout as the arcade MVS cabinet.

The arcade machines had a memory card system by which a player could save a game to return to at a later time, and remarkably, to be used to continue play on the SNK home console of the same name.

The arcade version of the hardware is often referred to as the "MVS," or Multi Video System (available in 1-slot, 2-slot, 4-slot, and 6-slot variations, the latter being capable of up to six cartridges loaded into one machine), with its console counterpart referred to as the "AES", or Advanced Entertainment System (most likely to distinguish it from the Nintendo Entertainment System, the dominating console on the market at the time).

Neo Geo AES motherboard. Early motherboard revisions such as this one contained daughterboards used to enhance the clarity of the video output.

The programming code is the same on both the MVS and AES hardware. In fact, owners could move EPROMs from one type to the other, and the game would still run. The program specifics for both MVS and AES game options were contained on every game ROM, whether the cartridge was intended for home or arcade use. However, the arcade and home cartridges do have a different pinout. They were designed this way to prevent arcade operators from buying the cheaper home carts and then using them in arcades.

[edit] ROM sizes and startup screens

Specification for ROM size was up to 330 megabits, hence the system displaying "MAX 330 MEGA - PRO GEAR SPEC" upon startup. While no technical specifications were required to display it, some games over 100 megabits followed this screen by displaying an animation proclaiming "The 100 Mega Shock". The original ROM size spec was later enhanced on cartridges with bank switching memory technology, increasing the maximum cartridge size to around 716 Mbit. These new cartridges also caused the system to display "GIGA POWER" upon startup, indicating this enhancement.

Original

100 Mega Shock

[edit] Specifications

[edit] Processor

Main Processor: Motorola 68000 running at 12 MHz
- Although the MC68000 CPU was designed by Motorola, there were many other clones of this CPU found in the Neo Geo hardware. The most common CPU is the TMP68HC000 manufactured by Toshiba.
Co-Processor: Zilog Z80 running at 4 MHz. This is used as an audio controller.
Sound chip: Yamaha YM2610 15 Sound Channels. 7 Digital, 4 FM synthesis, 3 PSG, and 1 Noise Channel.

[edit] Memory

Main Memory (used directly by 68K): 64 KB
Main Video memory : 74 KB
- Video Memory: 64 KB
- Palette Memory : 8 KB
- Fast Video RAM : 2 KB
Sound Memory (used directly by Z80): 2 KB

[edit] Display

Display resolution: 320x224 (many games only used the centermost 304 pixels)
Color Palette: 65,536
Maximum Colors On-Screen: 4,096
Maximum Sprites On-Screen: 380
Minimum Sprite Size: 1x2
Maximum Sprite Size: 16x512
Maximum Sprites per scanline: 96
Background Layers: 0
Aspect ratio: 4:3
A/V output: RF, composite video, RGB (with separate 21 pin SCART cable FCG-9).

[edit] Sound

Sound CPU: Z80 at 4 MHz
Sound hardware: YM2610 at 8 MHz, stereo sounds up to 56 kHz
4 channels FM (4 operators + LFO)
3 PSG
1 noise
7 4-bit ADPCM
Work RAM (sound): 2KB
Sound ROM 128KB on-board (only less than 32KB used)
up to 512KB sound ROM on cartridges

[edit] Power

Source: separate DC 5 V(older systems) and DC 9 V adapter (newer systems).
Consumption: 8 W older Systems, 5 W newer Systems

[edit] Dimensions

Console: 325 mm (width) x 237 mm (depth) x 60 mm (height).
Controller: 280 mm (width) x 190 mm (depth) x 95 mm (height).

[edit] Storage

Removable Memory Card: 8 KB or 68-pin JEIDA ver.3 spec memory
- Any 68-pin memory that fits the JEIDA ver.3 spec will work

[edit] Collecting

[edit] Home cartridges

There is a thriving collectors' scene for the Neo Geo home systems, especially the original AES home console. This is mainly because of the limited runs received by cartridges, the massive arcade library available, and the system's reputation as a 2D powerhouse. It is still common even to this day for both Neo Geo consoles and cartridges to fetch extremely high prices on eBay and other auction websites, particularly English versions of cartridges as these were produced in fewer quantities. A handful of the rarest Neo Geo games can sell for well over $1,000 on eBay.^{[citation needed]} This gives the system an almost cult following, as owners see the system as more of an "investment" rather than an ordinary videogame console. This leads to high resale value on most Neo Geo systems and games and makes the console a "must-have" for a number of video game collectors. The most expensive cartridge for the Neo Geo home system is the European-localized version of Kizuna Encounter: there are only four known copies of the game, with the most recently sold copy selling for $12,500 USD. This version of the game contains 2 unlockable and playable characters that have special abilities and weapons.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Arcade cartridges

Another sub-scene within the Neo Geo collector's market involves the MVS cartridges. Although these were initially designed for arcade use, a strong market has developed around collecting this particular format. The MVS market can be divided into two distinct groups: those who are looking for cheaper alternatives to the expensive rare home carts, and those who are interested in paying premium prices for complete arcade kits.

For those interested primarily in lower prices on rare home games, MVS carts, particularly loose carts or incomplete kits, can offer a cost effective alternative. Most MVS cartridges cost substantially less than their home counterparts. This lower price can be associated with their lack of decoration as most were designed to be installed inside arcade cabinets and lack cartridge artwork or box artwork, the high set-up cost of purchasing the MVS system, and the prevalence of bootleg cartridges. Many of the most common MVS games go for prices between $10-$150.

However, in recent years a growing market has emerged for complete MVS arcade kits. These consist of all the materials that would be initially sent to an arcade operator, including the brown cardboard shipping box (with label), the insert materials to decorate the marqee and arcade cabinet (including separate move lists), warning information, dipswitch settings, in some cases even posters and/or any packing materials. Because many of the items in an MVS kit were designed to be discarded by arcade operators, finding complete arcade kits can be difficult and thus the prices for some complete MVS kits can be quite high.

Because of the conflicting requirements and desires of the two MVS sub-groups, they rarely compete with each other for games.

Counterfeit or bootleg software is regarded in the collectors community as having zero value or very low value. Such software has a reputation for audio and video flaws, and is generally disparaged by fans of the Neo Geo systems. This software is identifiable by visual inspection of the game PCBs, or by comparison of ROM CRC values using a specially designed BIOS.

[edit] Other Neo Geo systems

Several home console systems were created based on the same hardware as the arcade games, as well as two handheld systems under the name Neo Geo Pocket.

Hyper Neo Geo 64 (New Hardware, Arcade only, Dropped)
Neo Geo CD
Neo Geo Pocket
Neo Geo Pocket Color

[edit] Graphical development

The Neo Geo was particularly notable for its ability to bring arcade-quality graphics directly into the home. As time went on, programmers were able to further tune the games to produce higher quality graphics than previous years and eventually beyond what was initially thought possible for the system.

One of the pack-in games with the original Japanese release was NAM-1975, a side-scrolling shooting game that featured multi-layer scrolling backgrounds. However, the initial Neo Geo games were, graphically speaking, a little less polished than SNK's non-Neo Geo games. By 1991, games like King of the Monsters demonstrated the Neo Geo's ability to produce graphic detail that matched or surpassed contemporary arcade games from the period.

In 1992, SNK's Art of Fighting marked the beginning of a series of 2-D fighting game innovations. This landmark game brought visual graphic damage to the characters' faces when hit, as well as large character sprites in combination with zoom effects to intensify the action. This zoom feature was also used in the following year's Samurai Shodown, whose even more elaborate graphics and gameplay won it Electronic Gaming Monthly's award as the 1993 Game of the Year and launched a successful franchise. The Neo Geo also became known for its shooters, with the first successful title coming with 1994's Aero Fighters 2. The following year's Pulstar managed to up the ante on both graphics and gameplay.

By the mid-1990s, SNK was trying to move onto a new platform, notably the Hyper-64. When the new 3-D system failed to take off, however, SNK found itself still developing games for its old 2-D engine. This led programmers to come up with ways to increase the limits of what was initially thought possible for the system.

Six years after the Neo Geo's initial launch, Nazca surprised the video game industry with Metal Slug. A take from the Contra series, Metal Slug is a run and gun game that featured cartoonish, hyper-active graphics and gameplay that also launched a very successful franchise. Since the Neo Geo was unable to produce the 3-D games that began dominating arcades in the 1990s, SNK focused on mastering the realm of 2-D. With the launch of The Last Blade in 1997, SNK programmers demonstrated that the Neo Geo was still capable of producing artistically rendered graphics to match the gameplay.

While the system became primarily known for its fighting games in the late-1990s, notably the King of Fighters series, 1998's Blazing Star updated the previous Pulstar with more detail. This trend of adding more detail to 2-D environments reached a plateau with 1999's Garou: Mark of the Wolves, an update of the Fatal Fury series, as well as 2000's Metal Slug 3. By the final Neo Geo-based edition of the longstanding King of Fighters series, The King of Fighters 2003, had stagnated to the level that was initially achieved at the turn of the century. In its 14 year lifespan of official support, the programmers for the Neo Geo appeared to bleed out all that the system's hardware was capable of.

[edit] Screenshots

Metal Slug (Nazca)

Garou: Mark of the Wolves (SNK)

[edit] References

MAME

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MAME is an emulator application designed to recreate the hardware of arcade game systems in software, with the intent of preserving gaming history and preventing vintage games from being lost or forgotten. The name is an acronym for Multiple Arcade Machine Emulator.

The first public MAME release (0.1) was on February 5, 1997, by Nicola Salmoria. As of version 0.124a, released March 24, 2008, the emulator now supports 3746 unique games and 7031 actual ROM image sets and is growing all the time. However, not all of the games in MAME are currently playable; 871 ROM sets are marked as not working in the current version, and 35 are not actual games but BIOS ROM sets. The project is currently coordinated by Aaron Giles.

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[edit] Design

The MAME core coordinates the emulation of several elements at the same time. These elements replicate the behavior of the hardware present in the original arcade machines. MAME can emulate many different central processing units (CPUs), both in number or types, including processors, audio and video specific chips, integrated circuits, microcontrollers, etc., including the needed elements for them to communicate together such as memory regions, RAM, data buses, peripherals, storage devices, etc. These elements are virtualized so MAME acts as a software layer between the original program of the game, and the platform MAME runs on.

Individual arcade systems are specified by drivers which take the form of C macros. These drivers specify the individual components to be emulated and how they communicate with each other.

[edit] Emulation philosophy

The stated aim of the project is to document hardware, and so MAME takes a somewhat purist view of emulation, prohibiting programming hacks that might make a game run improperly or run faster at the expense of emulation accuracy (see UltraHLE, a project aimed to run games at a playable speed). In MAME every emulated component is replicated down to the smallest level of individual registers and instructions. Consequently, MAME emulation is very accurate (in many cases pixel- and sample-accurate), but system requirements can be high. Since MAME runs mostly older games, a large majority of the games run well on a 2 GHz PC. More modern arcade machines are based on fast pipelined RISC processors, math DSPs, and other devices which are difficult to emulate efficiently. These systems may not run quickly even on the most modern systems available.

The MAME team has not diverged from this purist philosophy to take advantage of 3D hardware available on PCs today. It is a common but incorrect assumption that performance problems are due to some games' use of 3D graphics. However, even with graphics disabled, games using RISC processors and other modern hardware are not emulated any faster. Thus taking advantage of 3D hardware would not speed these games up significantly. In addition, using 3D hardware would make it difficult to guarantee identical output between different brands of cards, or even revisions of drivers on the same card, which goes against the MAME philosophy. Consistency of output across platforms is very important to the MAME team.

[edit] MAME releases

There are several types of MAME release depending on how frequently users wish to update and the level of code maturity each user feels comfortable running:

The major releases of MAME occur approximately once a month. These releases are given a version number, e.g. 0.99. The Unix-like numbering scheme is used, i.e. the version after 0.99 is 0.100, which differs from standard decimal numbering. These major releases are the most mature and least frequent, and are aimed at the average computer user who wants to try MAME. An executable version for the current main development platform (currently Microsoft Windows) is released from the MAME Home Page.
Smaller, incremental releases are released between major releases. These releases are denoted by a "u" number after the version number of the previous major release, e.g. 0.99u1 is the first development release after major version 0.99. There are usually about 5 new "u" releases in between major releases. These minor releases are not intended for average MAME users. Instead, they are aimed at people who take a close interest in MAME development and have access to compiler tools. The main purpose of the u releases is keeping development code in synchronization among developers. As such, these minor releases are not made officially available as executables. They are released only as source diffs against the most recent major version.
For those users who wish to keep up with day-to-day MAME development, the MAME source code is kept on the public Mess.org Subversion server for those who wish to access it. This is intended only for those who have access to compiler tools and feel comfortable building software from source code.

MAME has been ported to many different platforms. The X11 port for Unix-like systems, named XMAME, is currently undergoing a major rewrite and will not have any public releases in the near future. The SDL port is SDLMAME. The discontinued Mac OS X port is named MacMAME Another Mac OS X MAME emulator has started though, called MAME OS X. In addition, different versions of MAME have been ported to many other computers, PDAs, digital cameras and game consoles. Most of these ports, however, are based on very old versions of MAME, and many of them are not under active development anymore.

[edit] Game data

MacMAME under Mac OS X running Progear.

Main article: ROM image

In most arcade machines, the data (consisting of the game program, graphics, sounds, etc.) is stored in read-only memory chips (hence the name "ROM"), although other devices such as cassettes, floppy disks, hard disks, laserdiscs, and compact discs are also used. Most of these devices can be copied to computer files, in a process called "dumping". The resulting files are often generically called ROM images or ROMs regardless of the kind of storage they came from.

To play a particular game, MAME requires a set of files called a ROM set. They contain all the data from the original machine; for legal reasons, however, MAME itself does not include any of these files.

Some arcade machines use analog hardware, including laserdiscs and magnetic tape, to store and playback audio/video data such as soundtracks and cinematics. This data must be ripped and encoded into digital files that can be read by MAME, ordinarily involving lossy compression. Consequently, the digital copy is not a perfect reproduction of the analog source.

MAME uses two different file types for storing ROMs depending on the original medium:

The majority of ROM dumps are stored in raw format and contained in ZIP archives, one for each game.
For arcade machines which use hard disks or CDs, MAME uses CHD (Compressed Hunks of Data) files which contain the entire contents of the original hard disk, CD or Laserdisc. Due to the large size of these media, the CHD files derived from them also tend to be large.

[edit] Parents and clones

Original ROM sets ("parent"): the games which the MAME development team has decided are the "original" versions of each game. Except for the files contained in BIOS ROMs (if needed; see below), the ROM files for these games contain everything those games need to run. The "original" set is generally defined as the most recent revision of the game, and if multiple regional versions are available, the "World" or US revision are used.
Clone ROM sets: different versions or variants of the originals. For example, Street Fighter II Turbo is considered a variant of Street Fighter II Champion Edition.
BIOS ROM sets: the ROMs in common between all games on various standardized arcade systems (e.g. Neo-Geo). They basically boot the hardware and then allow the regular game software to take over.

[edit] Naming convention

A single supported game is usually referred to as a ROM set. Usually each game will consist of multiple ROM files, each of which represents a single device (usually ROM, but sometimes other devices such as PALs). The MAME developers assign each ROM set an 8-letter name for identification as well as a description associated with that 8-letter name. Examples:

Original ROM: hyperpac "Hyper Pacman" - MAME expects all required ROM images in a folder (or ZIP file) called hyperpac.
Clone ROM: hyperpcb "Hyper Pacman (bootleg)" - MAME will look in both the parent folder (hyperpac) and the clone folder (hyperpcb) for the files.

Individual ROM files are often named after labels found on the ROM chips and the position they are located on the board in the format "label.position". Sega for example use a standard labeling scheme for all the ROMs found on their arcade boards giving each unique ROM chip a unique label. "mpr12380.b2" is a ROM from the Golden Axe romset. This implies that the rom was labeled "mpr12380" and located in position "b2" on the PCB. By using such a naming scheme it makes it easy to use MAME to identify, and often help repair, non-working PCBs.

The 8-letter identification tags are less standardized and usually left to the discretion of individual developers. Although some standards do exist, the descriptive long names often follow naming conventions set by the original game manufacturers. For example, Sunset Riders by Konami:

ssriders "Sunset Riders (4 Players ver EAC)" (This is the parent set, with clones following)
ssrdrebd "Sunset Riders (2 Players ver EBD)"
ssrdrebc "Sunset Riders (2 Players ver EBC)"
ssrdruda "Sunset Riders (4 Players ver UDA)"
ssrdreaa "Sunset Riders (4 Players ver EAA)"
ssrdruac "Sunset Riders (4 Players ver UAC)"
ssrdrubc "Sunset Riders (2 Players ver UBC)"
ssrdrabd "Sunset Riders (2 Players ver ABD)"
ssrdradd "Sunset Riders (4 Players ver ADD)"
ssrdrjbd "Sunset Riders (2 Players ver JBD)"

Konami gave each revision of their later games a very specific and clearly visible version number, from the mid 90s onwards. As these represent an easy way to identify each version of the game, including the region in which it was available and the revision of the code, MAME uses this information to identify each set. UAA is American revision A, while ABD is Asian revision D. For companies where it is less clear sets are often simply labeled as "(set 1)" and "(set 2)". Unreleased games are labeled as "(Prototype)" and non-original versions of games are labeled as "(Bootleg)"

[edit] User interface

Emuloader being used with MAME

Although the main MAME program was once only made available as a command-line application for Microsoft Windows and DOS, there has been a minimalist GUI added to version .118 of the Windows distribution. In addition to the standard GUI there are several popular frontends which allow MAME to be launched from a more familiar graphical environment as well as providing facilities such as auditing ROMs. Additionally, the front ends make available more information about the games themselves, contributing significantly to the experience, such as history information and images of the arcade cabinets.

Some frontends have the sole purpose to launch games and hide the operating system. These frontends are generally used in MAME arcade cabinets, to enhance the illusion that the cabinet is a real arcade machine.

[edit] Legal status of MAME

Owning and distributing MAME itself is legal in most countries, as it is merely an emulator. Some companies (notably Sony) have attempted in court to prevent emulators from being sold, but they have been ultimately unsuccessful.^[1] As yet, no legal action has been brought against the MAME team.

The situation regarding ROM images of games is less clear-cut. Most arcade games are still covered by copyright.

Some copyright holders have been indecisive regarding making licensed MAME ROMs available to the public. For example, in 2003 Atari made MAME-compatible ROMs for 27 of its arcade games available through the internet site Star ROMs. However, a status check in March 2006 revealed a reversal of that decision, and the ROMs are no longer being sold there.

Other copyright holders have released games which are no longer commercially viable free of charge to the public. Games including Alien Arena, Gridlee, Robby Roto, Teeter Torture and a number of early games by Exidy have been released by their copyright holders under non-commercial licenses. These games may be downloaded legally from the official MAME web site.

However, the majority of games emulated in MAME at this time are copyrighted but no longer commercially available in any form. The legality of distributing or downloading such games depends greatly upon the laws in each country. Many national copyright laws include language which limits offenses to those which cause material harm to copyright holders. An argument could be made that where a game is no longer being manufactured or sold, this could not be the case.

A peculiar legal situation exists with regard to games which are covered by copyright but whose copyright owner is not aware that he owns the copyright. Such games are termed orphan works. They are covered by copyright but do not make money for anybody. Copyright reformers such as Lawrence Lessig believe that such works no longer have a reason to be copyrighted and should be in the public domain. On January 31, 2006, the United States Copyright Office released the results of its study of this issue.^[2]

[edit] MAME license

While MAME is available at no cost, including its source code, it is not free software because commercial use and redistribution are prohibited. That is, its license does not meet the conditions of the Open Source Definition, nor is it "free software" as defined by the Free Software Foundation.

In particular, MAME may be redistributed in source or binary form, either modified or unmodified, but: "Redistributions may not be sold, nor may they be used in a commercial product or activity." The main goal of this is to prevent arcade operators from installing MAME cabinets and profiteering from the works of the original manufacturers of the game.

Also, redistributions of modified versions (derivative works) must include the complete corresponding source code (similar to a copyleft).

There exist, however, a number of derivative versions that violate the license by not releasing the full and complete source code, including multiplayer builds that support the Kaillera server protocol, or others that add newer games.

[edit] MAME cabinets

This section does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007)
Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

MAME arcade cabinets are meant to provide the experience of an entire video arcade in one unit. They can come in many different flavors, such as upright cabinets which are the full-size cabinets many people are used to, cocktail cabinets which are similar to tables with a glass top that players look down on to play on, and bar-top machines which are miniature versions of the uprights.

Mame enthusiasts will either build their own cabinets from scratch or they will restore an old second hand cabinet with a computer at it's central core in place of the original circuit boards. When constructing a cabinet in this fashion there are many considerations to be made on the parts and methods of connecting the internal computer components to the external joysticks pushbuttons, monitor and speakers. ^[3]

Sega

2008-03-31T06:51:00.000-07:00

Sega Corporation (株式会社セガ, Kabushiki-kaisha Sega^?) is a multinational Japanese (originally American) video game software and hardware development company, and a former home computer and console manufacturer. The company had success with both arcades and home consoles, but on January 24, 2001, formally left the consumer console business^[2] and began concentrating on software development for multiple platforms.

Sega's main offices, as well as the main offices of its domestic division, Sega Corporation (Japan), are located in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Sega's European division, Sega Europe Ltd., is headquartered in the Chiswick area of London. Sega's North American division, Sega of America Inc., is headquartered in San Francisco, California; having moved there from Redwood City, California in 1999. Until 2000, Sega's official corporate name was Sega Enterprises Ltd..

[edit] History

[edit] Origins and entry into the video game market (1940–1988)

Sega was founded in 1940 as Standard Games (later Service Games) in Honolulu, Hawaii,^[3] by Martin Bromely, Irving Bromberg, and James Humpert to provide coin-operated amusements for American servicemen on military bases. Bromely suggested that the company move to Tokyo, Japan in 1951 and in May 1952 "SErvice GAmes of Japan" was registered.

In 1954, another American businessman, David Rosen, fell in love with Tokyo and established his own company, Rosen Enterprises, Inc., in Japan to export art. When the company imported coin-operated instant photo booths, it stumbled on a surprise hit: The booths were very popular in Japan. Business was booming, and Rosen Enterprises expanded by importing coin-operated electro-mechanical games.

Rosen Enterprises and Service Games merged in 1965 to make Sega Enterprises. Within a year, the new company released a submarine-simulator game called Periscope that became a smash-hit worldwide.

In 1969, Gulf+Western purchased Sega, and Rosen was allowed to remain CEO of the Sega division. Under Rosen's leadership, Sega continued to grow and prosper.

In the video game arcades, Sega was known for games such as Zaxxon and Out Run.

Periscope was Sega's first highly successful arcade game.

Sega's revenues would hit $214 million by 1982 and in 1983,^{[citation needed]} Sega would release its first video game console, the SG-1000, the first 3D arcade video game, SubRoc-3D, which used a special periscope viewer to deliver individual images to each eye, and the first action-based laserdisc arcade game, Astron Belt.

In the same year, Sega was hit hard by the American video game crash. Hemorrhaging money, Gulf+Western sold the U.S. assets of Sega to famous pinball manufacturer Bally Manufacturing Corporation. The Japanese assets of Sega were purchased for $38 million by a group of investors led by Rosen and Hayao Nakayama, a Japanese businessman who owned a distribution company that had been acquired by Rosen in 1979. Nakayama became the new CEO of Sega, and Rosen became head of its subsidiary in the United States.

In 1984, the multibillion dollar Japanese conglomerate CSK bought Sega, renamed it to Sega Enterprises Ltd., headquartered it in Japan, and two years later, shares of its stock were being traded on the Tokyo Stock Exchange. David Rosen's friend, Isao Okawa, the chairman of CSK, became chairman of Sega.

In 1986, Sega of America was established to take advantage of the resurgent video game market in the United States.

Sega would also release the Sega Master System and the first Alex Kidd game, who would be SEGA's mascot until 1991 when Sonic the Hedgehog took over. While the Master System was technically superior to the NES^{[citation needed]}, it failed to capture market share in North America due to highly aggressive strategies by Nintendo and ineffective marketing by Tonka. However, it did dominate the European and Brazilian markets until Sega discontinued the system in Europe in 1996, and in Brazil in 2000.

[edit] Sega as a Major Console Manufacturer (1990-2001)

[edit] Sega Mega Drive/Genesis

Main article: Sega Mega Drive

With the introduction of the Sega Mega Drive (known as Sega Genesis in North America), and to carry the momentum to the 2nd generation of games, Sega of America, led by Tom Kalinske, launched an anti-Nintendo campaign with slogans such as "Genesis does what Nintendon't." When Nintendo launched its Super Nintendo Entertainment System, in 1991, Sega changed its slogan to "Welcome to the next level".

Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot for over sixteen years.

In 1991, in order to rival Nintendo to the punch of the upcoming Super Nintendo, Sega re-branded itself with a new game and mascot, Sonic the Hedgehog. With his hip attitude and style, he was marketed to seem "cooler" than Mario, Nintendo's mascot.^{[citation needed]} This shift led to a wider success for the Genesis and would eventually propel Sega to 65% of the market in North America for a brief time.^{[citation needed]} Simultaneously, after much previous delay, Sega released the moderately successful Sega CD as an add-on feature, allowing for extra storage in games due to their CD-ROM format, giving developers the ability to make longer, more sophisticated games, the most popular of which was Sega’s own Sonic CD.^[4]

By 1994, Sega had released the Sega 32X in an attempt to upgrade the Mega Drive to the standards of more advanced systems. It sold well initially, but had problems with lack of software and hype about the upcoming Sega Saturn and Sony's Playstation. Within a year, it was in the bargain bins of many stores.^[5]

[edit] Sega versus Accolade

In 1992, Sega lost the Sega v. Accolade case, which involved independently produced software for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis console that copied a small amount of Sega's code. The verdict set a precedent that copyrights do not extend to non-expressive content in software that is required by another system to be present in order for that system to run the software ^[6]. The case in question stems from the nature of the console video game market. Hardware companies often sell their systems at or below cost, and rely on other revenue streams such as in this case, game licensing. Sega was attempting to "lock out" game companies from making Mega Drive/Genesis games unless they paid Sega a fee (something its competition has done in the past). Their strategy was to make the hardware reject any cartridge that did not include a Sega trademark. If an unlicensed company included this trademark in their game, Sega could sue the company for trademark infringement. Though Sega lost this lawsuit, all later Sega systems seemed to incorporate a similar hardware requirement. Also worthy of note was the release of the successful Virtua Racing in the arcades and on the Genesis, among the first 3D games on the market, as well as the release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2, the most successful game Sega ever made,^{[citation needed]} selling six million copies as of June 2006.^[7]

[edit] Arcade successes

The 1993 release of Virtua Fighter was widely hailed as one of the greatest achievements in Sega's history.^{[citation needed]} By utilizing their newest arcade cabinet, the Sega Model 1, they managed to create graphics and gameplay that were, at the time, revolutionary, becoming a massive critical success. The game was a smash hit with consumers, spawning four direct sequels, several successful spinoffs, as well as the 3D Fighting genre. It is one of the video games on display at the Smithsonian.

Sega followed that success in 1994 with Daytona USA, an equally impressive game that was the first to connect arcade cabinets together for multiplayer use. The success of Daytona USA would be unparalleled in the history of the arcades, becoming the most profitable game ever released in that medium. Other notable hits of the year would be Yu Suzuki's Virtua Cop, Star Wars Arcade and Sonic the Hedgehog 3 & Knuckles.

Despite their massive advances in the arcades, Sega’s share of the home market plummeted by 1994 to 35%^{[citation needed]} after Nintendo released key franchise titles for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System such as Donkey Kong Country, Star Fox, and Super Metroid,^{[citation needed]} along with an internal shift in focus away from the Genesis to Sega's upcoming Saturn and the release of the Sega 32X,^{[citation needed]} which never achieved commercial success in light of Sega's attention on the forthcoming Saturn. Also in 1994, Sega launched the Sega Channel, a subscription gaming service delivered by local cable companies affiliated with Time-Warner Cable or TCI through which subscribers received a special cartridge adapter that connected to the cable connection. At its peak, the Sega Channel had approximately 250,000 subscribers.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Sega Saturn

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Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

Main article: Sega Saturn

In 1995, Sega released the Sega Saturn (with Virtua Fighter) in the American market, which utilized a 32 bit processor and preceded both the PlayStation and the Nintendo 64. However, poor sales in the West (including the traditional stronghold markets in Europe) led to the console being abandoned within three years.^{[citation needed]} Ironically, it was Sega's only success in its home country of Japan, where it managed to outsell the Playstation well into 1996, and defeated the Nintendo 64.^{[citation needed]} The Saturn library was built heavily on arcade ports, such as two of the Saturn's top selling games;^{[citation needed]} Virtua Fighter 2 and Sega Rally, and platformers, such as Sonic Team's Nights into Dreams... and Burning Rangers. Other notable titles include several titles exclusive to the Japanese market, like Radiant Silvergun and Sakura Taisen, involving fighting games like Last Bronx, rail shooters, such as Panzer Dragoon and The House of the Dead and a few well regarded RPGs; Panzer Dragoon Saga, Grandia, and Shining Force 3.

In 1997, Sega entered into a short-lived merger with Bandai. However it was later called off, citing "cultural differences" between the two companies.^{[citation needed]} Around the same time, Sega announced that the Saturn was not Sega’s future and quickly began moving high profile titles (most notoriously Virtua Fighter 3) over to their upcoming next generation game console, the Dreamcast.^{[citation needed]} Entertainment fun center GameWorks, was founded in 1997 as well as the now defunct Sega World theme parks.

[edit] Sega Dreamcast

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Please improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

Main article: Sega Dreamcast

In 1998, Sega launched the Dreamcast game console, in a novel idea to use off-the-shelf components. The Dreamcast was not only competitive price wise, but it also featured technology that was ahead of its time, such as Tiled rendering, which allowed for massive geometry with little to no performance penalty. An analog modem was also included, allowing gamers to play multi-player games online on a home console for the first time, most notably with Chu Chu Rocket; the first online console game, Phantasy Star Online, the first console-based MMORPG and Alien Front Online, the first console game with online voice chat.

The Dreamcast sold out in the first week in Japan, and it was in such high demand in that region people often camped out to get one. The Western launch was just as successful and earned the distinction of "most successful hardware launch in history,"^{[citation needed]} holding that title until the 2000 launch of the PlayStation 2. The Dreamcast is home to several innovative cult hits of the time,^{[citation needed]} including one of the first cel-shaded title; Jet Set Radio, Sonic Team's rhythm game, Samba de Amigo, and Shenmue, which was among the first "sandbox" games, as well as being the first to employ the now common "QTE" game mechanic. However, despite receiving critical acclaim, these titles failed to garner much public attention in the face of the upcoming Playstation 2 launch.

Faced with debt and competition from Sony, Nintendo, and Microsoft, Sega officially discontinued the Dreamcast hardware in 2001.

[edit] Shift to a software manufacturer (2001-2005)

2001 would see a major shift in focus for Sega as it moved out of the console manufacturing business.^[2]

The company has since evolved primarily into a platform-agnostic software company, known as a "third-party publisher", that creates games that will launch on a variety of game consoles produced by other companies, many of them former rivals, the first of which was a port of Chu Chu Rocket to Nintendo's Game Boy Advance.

Arcade units are still being produced, first under the Sega NAOMI name, and then with subsequent releases of the Sega NAOMI 2, Sega HIKARU, Sega Chihiro, Triforce (in collaboration with Nintendo and Namco) and the Sega Lindbergh. Sega is the major force in the arcade industry today, controlling a substantial portion of the market.^{[citation needed]}.

Despite several early hits as a third party vendor, including Virtua Fighter 4, Sonic Adventure 2 Battle and the new Super Monkey Ball series, Sega fell on hard times, and after the death of CSK founder Isao Okawa in 2001, who spent over US$40 million to help Sega, CSK put Sega on the auction block. The first potential buyer was Japan's Sammy who discussed a merger, but plans fell through. Discussions also took place with Namco, Bandai, Electronic Arts and Microsoft.

In August 2003, Sammy bought the outstanding 22% of shares that CSK had,^{[citation needed]} and Sammy chairman Hajime Satomi became CEO of Sega. With the Sammy chairman at the helm of Sega, it has been stated that Sega's activity will focus on its profit-making arcade business rather than its loss-making home software development. In late December, Sega launched the highly successful Sonic Heroes, the first Sonic game to be on both the Xbox and the PlayStation 2. It is one of the most successful games in Sega's portfolio, selling slightly over 5 million units in its lifetime.^{[citation needed]}

During the middle of 2004, Sammy bought a controlling share in Sega Corporation at a cost of $1.1 billion, creating the new company Sega Sammy Holdings, one of the biggest game manufacturing companies in the world. With the merger, Sega reabsorbed its second party studios and began to reorganize them. Many Sega employees, most notably Tetsuya Mizuguchi, father of Sega Rally and Space Channel 5, walked out in protest.

On January 25, 2005, Sega sold Visual Concepts, a studio Sega dubbed a "1.5" developer, to Take-Two Interactive for $24 million. Sega used the parlance "1.5" as a mid-point of sorts between first-party and second-party developer status: that is, a wholly owned studio that would otherwise be known as a first-party developer, but was outside of internal development teams. Visual Concepts was known for many Sega Sports games including the ESPN NFL Football series, formerly NFL2K. The sale also came with Visual Concept's wholly-owned subsidiary Kush Games. Take Two subsequently announced the start of the publishing label 2K Games because of this purchase.

[edit] Success again (2006-present)

By the end of 2005, Sega experienced strong earnings growth across multiple divisions. Contributing to the company's success were strong pachinko sales^[8], and sales of software titles Ryu Ga Gotoku (known as Yakuza outside of Japan), Mushiking, and Sonic the Hedgehog.

In an effort to appeal to western tastes, they partnered with Obsidian Entertainment to develop a new RPG for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.^[9] The partnership was the latest in a series of collaborations with western video game studios, including Monolith Productions (Condemned: Criminal Origins), Bizarre Creations (The Club) and Silicon Knights (who have yet to announce their project with Sega). Sega also acquired Sports Interactive and Secret Level. The deal with Sports Interactive was said to be worth GBP 30 million ($52 million);^[10] the terms of the Secret Level buyout were not disclosed.^[11]

That desire to have a more Western appeal for Sega was shortly followed up by Sega acquiring British developer Sports Interactive after a successful run of publishing Football Manager 2005 and 2006, in which they managed to sell 1.5 million copies,^[12] the deal was said to be worth in the region of £30 million ($52 million) by Miles Jacobson, Sports Interactive’s Managing Director.^[13] This was, however, not the only developer Sega had acquired, they also purchased American developer Secret Level although the terms of the deal was not disclosed,^[14] Secret Level had however begun work before being bought by Sega to “recreate a classic Sega franchise" for the PS3 and Xbox 360 July 2005, which was revealed to be Golden Axe later that year.

While Sega continued its expansion in the West, on May 8, 2006, it was announced Sega of Japan begun helping famed Sega developer and Sonic Team head Yuji Naka (known for being the main programmer for the original Sonic the Hedgehog games and Nights into Dreams...) to start up his own company titled "Prope" (Latin for "beside" and "near future")^[15] in which Sega helped provide 10% startup capital^[16] and have the option to publish games produced from the studio if they wished to.

Due to the continued success of Sega’s software sales, the company reported on May 17, 2006 a 31% rise in net profits from that of the previous year of the period ending March 31, 2006, being posted at ¥66.2 billion ($577 million), as well as an increase in operating profit growing by 13% from the previous year, being posted at ¥553.2 billion ($4.82 billion)^[17] notable titles to have helped Sega increase profits in the West being that of Shadow the Hedgehog (which sold over a million copies)^[18] and Sonic Riders, whilst in Japan, games such as Yakuza, Mushi King and Brain Trainer Portable continued to sell strong.

Although Sega seemed poised to continue increasing profits, the company reported a massive drop of 93% profits for the period ending June 30, 2006 compared to the same period last of year. Net income for the company dropped from $98.3 million (a year earlier) to $7.12 million for this period ending as well of total sells dropping from $926.5 million to $809.1 million [1], Sega reported that the decrease in profits was due to no significant big releases by its slot machine division. However, a total of 2.1 million games were sold between the period, 870,000 in the US, 680,000 in Europe and 580,000 in Asia.^{[citation needed]} Despite this, Sega Sammy said that the results were in line with their expectations and did not amend their fully year forecasts.

Despite this, Sega reported in November a massive 52% rise in profits for the periods between April and September 2006, compared to the same period last year.^[19] Software sales for the company had also increased with 5.75 million. Of those units, 1.76 million were sold in Japan, 1.59 million in Europe, 2.36 million in the US and 30,000 in other regions.^[20] a number of titles were said to have performed well, in particular Super Monkey Ball: Touch & Roll for the Nintendo DS and Football Manager 2006 for the Xbox 360 having sold well. While Sega performed better in 2006, they had slashed their forecasts for the year ending March 2007 by 20% with an anticipated profit of $536.7 million, down from the initial profits of $656.7 million.

Continuing to prepare more games for the Western market, Sega was able to bridge a partnership with New Line Cinema in September to develop a game for the movie tie-in game The Golden Compass [2] and also partnered themselves with Fox to develop two new games based on the Alien franchise.^[21] Sega had then assigned critically acclaimed developers Gearbox software to develop a first person shooter and Obsidian Entertainment to develop an RPG based on the popular film franchise, while the platforms are still to be specified, Sega has both titles in pre-production and one of them is set to be released in 2009.^[22]

[edit] Recognized company personnel

In alphabetical order

Corporate Division

American

Bernie Stolar: Recruited from Sony, President SOA (1996 – 1999)
Charles Bellfield:
David Rosen: Co-Founder, Board Member
Ken Balthaser: Former SOA head of development 1989-
Michael Katz: President SOA (1985 - 1990)
Peter Moore: Vice President (199X – 1999) President SOA (1999 – 2003)
Scott Steinberg: Vice president of marketing SOA 2003 - 2007.
Simon Jeffery: Recruited from Lucas Arts, Simon Jeffery President SOA (2003 - )
Tom Kalinske: President SOA (1990 – 1996), Former Board Member (199X – 199X)

Australian

Daniel Evans: President of SEGA's Australian operations.
Jonathan Clavin: Former SEGA President of Australian Intercontinental Operations (1987-2001)

European

Robert Deith: Past Chair of Board
William S. Polchinski: Former Senior Assistant Chairman of Sales and Marketing Division (1999-2004)

Japanese

Hayao Nakayama: Co-Founder, President SOJ (19XX-2001)
Isao Okawa: President SOJ 2000 - 2001 (died shortly after Dreamcast was discontinued, forgave the debts Sega owed him and gave the company his $695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock to Sega Corporation.^[23]
Shoichiro Irimajiri: President SOJ 1998 - 2000
Yukawa Hidekazu: Aka Mr. Dreamcast, is the man on the Dreamcast boxes in Japan, and has an appearance in the dreamcast game "What's Shenmue?".

Video Game Hardware Division

Hideki Sato Designer of all major hardware

Video Game Software Division

Toshihiro Nagoshi: Head of NE R&D 1.
Mie Kumagai : Head of AM R&D 3, only female studio head.
Yuji Naka: Co-creator of company mascot, owns independent studio, 10% funded by Sega.
Yu Suzuki: Head of AM Plus R&D (AKA NE R&D 2, DigitalRex).

[edit] In-house studios

Global Entertainment Software R&D, which was led by Yuji Naka until 2006. "GE" currently focuses on developing video games for home consoles.

Department	Members From	Headed By	Notable Titles
G.E. Dept. #1,	Sonic Team	Akinori Nishiyama	Sonic and the Secret Rings, Sonic the Hedgehog 2006, Phantasy Star Universe
G.E Dept. #2	United Game Artists	Akira Nishino	Feel the Magic: XY/XX, The Rub Rabbits!, Sonic Riders, Sonic Riders: Zero Gravity
Sega Studio USA	Sonic Team USA	Takashi Iizuka	Sonic Adventure 2, Shadow the Hedgehog, Sonic Heroes, Nights: Journey of Dreams
Mobile Content R&D	New Studio	Kazunari Tsukamoto	Brain Trainer Portable
Sega Studio China	New Studio	Makoto Uchida	None as of now

Amusement Software R&D, which currently focus' on the development of games for arcade machines.

Department	Members From	Headed By	Notable Titles
AM.1 R&D	WOW Entertainment + Overworks	Atsushi Seimiya	House of the Dead series, Shinobi series, Sakura Wars series, Phantasy Star series, Skies of Arcadia, Valkyrie of the Battlefield
AM.2 R&D	Sega-AM2	Hiroshi Kataoka	Virtua Fighter series, Virtua Cop series, Out Run series, Shenmue series, After Burner series, Sword of Vermilion, Daytona USA series
AM.3 R&D	Hitmaker + Sega Rosso	Mie Kumagai	Crazy Taxi series, Virtual On series, Virtua Tennis series, "Initial D Arcade Stage" series
Family Entertainment	New Department	Hiroshi Uemura	Mushiking: King of the Beetles series, Oshare Majo: Love and Berry, Dinosaur King
Sports Design R&D	Smilebit	Takayuki Kawagoe	Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games, Let's Make a J-League Pro Soccer Club series, Let's Make a J-League Baseball Team series

New Entertainment R&D, which is led by each department head. "NE" currently focus' on the development of new content for the arcade and home console markets.

Department	Members From	Headed By	Notable Titles
NE.1 R&D	Amusement Vision, Ltd. + Smilebit	Toshihiro Nagoshi	Super Monkey Ball series, Shining Force Neo, Yakuza (Ryū ga Gotoku)
AMPlus R&D	Digitalrex	Yu Suzuki	Psy-Phi, Shenmue Online, Sega Race TV

[edit] Subsidiary studios

Sega began acquiring or founding subsidiary studios in 2005, and they have been the cornerstone of an internal shift within Sega to appeal to a more Western audience.

Department	Division	Year of purchase/founding	Notable Titles
Secret Level	Sega of America	2005	Golden Axe: Beast Rider, Iron Man
Sega Racing Studio	Sega Europe	2005	Sega Rally Revo
The Creative Assembly	Sega Europe	2005	Total War, Total Warrior series
Sports Interactive	Sega Europe	2006	Football Manager series
Prope	Sega Corporation (Japan)	2006	None as of 2008

[edit] Former Structure Prior to Sammy Merger

Sega of Japan's Studios

InHouse Name	Name as Second Party	Notable Titles
AM1 R&D	WOW Entertainment	House of the Dead series, Sega GT series
AM2 R&D	Sega-AM2	Virtua Fighter series, Virtua Cop series, Out Run series, Shenmue series, After Burner series, Fighting Vipers series
AM3 R&D	Hitmaker	Crazy Taxi series, Virtual On series,
AM4 R&D	Amusement Vision	Daytona USA, Super Monkey Ball series, SpikeOut series
AM5 R&D	Sega Rosso	Initial D Arcade Stage
AM6 R&D/ (Team Andromeda)	Smilebit	Panzer Dragoon series, Jet Set Radio series, Let‘s Make a J-League Football Team series
AM7 R&D/ Team Shinobi	Overworks	Shinobi series, Streets of Rage series, Phantasy Star series, Sakura Taisen series, Skies of Arcadia
AM8 R&D	Sonic Team	Sonic the Hedgehog series, Nights series, Phantasy Star Online series, Samba de Amigo, Chu Chu Rocket, Burning Rangers
AM9 R&D	United Game Artists	Sega Rally series, Space Channel 5 series, Rez
WaveMaster	WaveMaster Entertainment	WaveMaster concentrated on the development of music for various Sega efforts, and as such, is not a studio in the traditional since.

Sega of America's Studios'

Studio	Notable Titles
Visual Concepts	NFL 2K series, NBA 2K series, Ooga Booga
Sega Technical Institute	Sonic The Hedgehog series (with Sonic Team), Comix Zone, Sonic Spinball, The Ooze, Die Hard Arcade (with Sega AM1)
Sega Interactive	Eternal Champions series, Star Wars Arcade
SegaSoft	SegaSoft developed games for Heat.com, rather than traditional commercial games.
Multimedia Studio	The Multimedia Studio concentrated on the development of music for various Sega efforts, and as such, is not a studio in the traditional since.
Sega Studio USA	Sonic Adventure 2, Sonic Heroes, Shadow the Hedgehog, Nights: Journey of Dreams

[edit] Hardware

[edit] Arcade boards

Sega System 1
Sega System 2
Sega System E
Sega System 16
Sega System 18
Sega System 24
Sega System 32
Sega System C2
Sega Model 1

Sega Model 2
Sega Model 3
Sega Titan Video
Sega NAOMI
Sega NAOMI 2
Sega HIKARU
Sega Chihiro
Triforce – in collaboration with Nintendo and Namco
Sega Lindbergh

[edit] Consoles

Sega SG-1000: Available in limited markets
Sega SG-1000 Mark II: Updated version of the SG-1000, includes a keyboard
Sega SG-1000 Mark III: Only available in Japan
Sega SC-3000: A computer version of the SG-1000
Sega SC-3000H: An updated version with more RAM and keyboard (the original keyboard was of the low-end membrane type).
Sega Master System: Essentially the SG-1000 Mark III only with a different name and a few minor adjustments
Sega Mega Drive: Known as the Sega Genesis in North America due to another company owning the Mega Drive trademark in that region.
Sega Mega-CD: Known simply as the Sega CD for the North American market, it allowed CD based games as well as Audio CDs to be played on the Mega Drive.
Sega 32X: Hardware update to the Mega Drive allowing 32 bit based games to be played
Sega Multi-Mega: a portable CD player with the functionalities of a Sega Mega Drive and Sega Mega CD. Following the Mega ... brands, its name was Multi-Mega in most of the world and Genesis CDX in North America.
Sega TeraDrive: A 16-bit PC with an integrated Mega Drive. Came with a Software Development Kit to allow creation of Mega Drive games. The system was only released in Japan.
Sega Neptune: A Sega Mega Drive/32X hybrid. It never passed the prototype stage. Only two empty cases are known to exist.
Sega Saturn: True 32-bit console
Sega Dreamcast: First 128 bit (sixth generation) console, also Sega's last console
Sega Pico: an educational gaming system.

Amstrad Mega PC: Although not actually produced by Sega themselves, the Mega PC is Amstrad's version of the TeraDrive for European and Australian markets, thus includes electronics for Sega's MegaDrive console built-in.

[edit] Handhelds

Game Gear: Sega’s 8-bit handheld
Sega Nomad: Sega’s Mega Drive, in a portable unit
Sega VMU: Memory Card for Dreamcast, also able to download games
Sega Mega Jet: A Mega Drive unit only available on Japan Airlines flights

[edit] Advertisement campaigns

Sega has had a long history of different slogans and ad campaigns.

Arcade

The Arcade Experts. (early 80s)

Sega Master System

The challenge will always be there.
Major fun and games!
Now, there are no limits.
Hot hits today! More hits on the way!
Do me a favor, plug me into a Sega (talking TV).

Mega Drive/Genesis

Genesis does what Nintendon't!
Blast Processing
The name "Sega!" being composed by a "choir".
Welcome To The Next Level.
To be this good takes AGES, To be this good takes SEGA.
Siga Sega! ("Follow Sega!", used in Brazil during the early 90's)
Sega, c'est plus fort que toi ! ('Sega, it's stronger than you!', cult French TV slogan, early 90s)
16 bit arcade graphics!
La Ley del Más Fuerte (The Law of the Strongest, Spanish slogan from 1993-94)
The more you play with it, the harder it gets.
Pirate TV (Britain)
Canal Pirata Sega (Spain)

Saturn

Welcome to the Real World - Sega Saturn. (Early UK TV slogan)
Segata Sanshiro
When you have Sega Saturn, nothing else matters.
The Game is Never Over (also used in last European Mega Drive commercials.)
Peligrosamente real (Dangerously Real. 1st Spanish slogan)
The Plaything ad.
Nous ne sommes pas sur la même planète ('We are not on the same planet', French slogan in the mid 90s)

Dreamcast

It's Thinking. (promotion for Dreamcast)
Up to 6 billion players. (early Dreamcast tagline)

Post Dreamcast years (2002 - 2003)

The return of the "Sega!" choir.

Nintendo Entertainment System

2008-03-31T06:50:00.000-07:00

The Nintendo Entertainment System (often abbreviated as NES^[8] or simply Nintendo) is an 8-bit video game console that was released by Nintendo in North America, Brazil, Europe, and Australia in 1985. In most of Asia, including Japan (where it was first launched in 1983), the Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Singapore, it was released as the Family Computer (ファミリーコンピュータ, Famirī Konpyūta^?), also known as the Famicom (ファミコン, Famikon^?) listen (help·info) or simply FC for short. In South Korea, the hardware was licensed to Hyundai Electronics, which marketed it as the Comboy (컴보이).^[9]

The best-selling gaming console of its time in Asia and North America^[10] (Nintendo claimed to have sold 61.9 million NES units worldwide),^[4]^[5] it helped revitalize the US video game industry following the video game crash of 1983.^[11] It set the standard for subsequent consoles in everything from game design (the commonly-bundled game Super Mario Bros. popularized the platform game genre, and introduced elements that would be copied in many subsequent games^[12]) to controller layout (the D-pad refinements used in the NES controller would be incorporated in nearly every major console to follow, and garnered Nintendo a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award).^[13]^[14] In addition, with the NES, Nintendo introduced a now-standard business model of software licensing for third-party developers.^[15]

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[edit] History

Main article: History of the Nintendo Entertainment System

Nintendo’s successes in video arcades encouraged the company to enter the home console market with the Famicom. A port of Nintendo’s arcade hit Donkey Kong was a launch title for the system.

Following a series of arcade game successes in the early 1980s, Nintendo made plans to produce a cartridge-based console. Masayuki Uemura designed the system, which was released in Japan on July 15, 1983 for ¥14,800 alongside three ports of Nintendo’s successful arcade games Donkey Kong, Donkey Kong Jr., and Popeye. Following a product recall and a reissue with a new motherboard, the Famicom’s popularity soared, becoming the best-selling game console in Japan by the end of 1984.

Encouraged by these successes, Nintendo soon turned its attention to the North American market. Nintendo entered into negotiations with Atari to release the Famicom under Atari’s name as the name Nintendo Enhanced Video System; however, this deal eventually fell apart.^[16]^[17] Subsequent plans to market a Famicom console in North America featuring a keyboard, cassette data recorder, wireless joystick controller, and a special BASIC cartridge under the name "Nintendo Advanced Video System" likewise never materialized.

In June 1985, Nintendo unveiled its American version of the Famicom at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES). It rolled out its first systems to limited American markets on October 18, 1985, following up with a full-fledged North American release of the console in February of the following year.^[18] Nintendo simultaneously released eighteen launch titles: 10-Yard Fight, Baseball, Clu Clu Land, Donkey Kong Jr. Math, Duck Hunt, Excitebike, Golf, Gyromite, Hogan’s Alley, Ice Climber, Kung Fu, Mach Rider, Pinball, Stack-Up, Tennis, Wild Gunman, Wrecking Crew, and Super Mario Bros.

In Europe and Australia, the system was released to two separate marketing regions (A and B). Distribution in region B, consisting of most of mainland Europe (excluding Italy), was handled by a number of different companies, with Nintendo responsible for most cartridge releases; most of region B saw a 1986 release. Mattel handled distribution for region A, consisting of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, Australia and New Zealand, starting the following year. Not until 1990 did Nintendo’s newly created European branch take over distribution throughout Europe.^[19] Despite the system’s lackluster performance outside of Japan and North America, by 1990 the NES had outsold all previously released consoles.^[20]

Shortly before ceasing production of the system in North America, Nintendo released a radically redesigned console (known as the AV Family Computer in Japan and the NES 2 in North America) that corrected a number of problems with the original hardware.

As the 1990s dawned, however, renewed competition from technologically superior systems such as the 16-bit Sega Mega Drive (called the Sega Genesis in North America) marked the end of the NES’s dominance. Eclipsed by Nintendo’s own Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), the NES’s user base gradually waned. Nintendo continued to support the system in North America through the first half of the decade, even releasing a new version of the console, the NES 2, to address many of the design flaws in the original NES hardware.^[21] The final games released for the system were as follows: in Japan, Adventure Island 4 in 1994, and, in North America, among unlicensed titles, Sunday Funday was the last, whereas Wario's Woods was the last licensed game (also the only one with an ESRB rating).^[22] In the wake of ever decreasing sales and the lack of new software titles, Nintendo of America officially discontinued the NES by 1995. Despite this, Nintendo of Japan kept producing new Nintendo Famicom units for a niche market up until October 2003, when it officially discontinued the line. Even as developers ceased production for the NES, a number of high-profile video game franchises and series for the NES were transitioned to newer consoles and remain popular to this day. Nintendo's own Super Mario Bros., The Legend of Zelda, and Metroid franchises debuted on the NES, as did Capcom's Mega Man franchise, Konami's Castlevania franchise, and Square Enix's Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest franchises.

Nintendo of Japan continued to repair Famicom systems until October 31, 2007, attributing the decision to discontinue support to an increasing shortage of the necessary parts.^[23]^[24]^[25]

[edit] Bundle packages

Super Mario Bros. was one of the titles packaged alongside the NES deck for the North American launch of the console.

For its North American release, the NES was released in two different configurations, or "bundles". The console deck itself was identical, but each bundle was packaged with different game paks and accessories. The first of these sets, the Control Deck, retailed from US$199.99, and included the console itself, two game controllers, and a Super Mario Bros. game cartridge. The second bundle, the Deluxe Set, retailed for US$249.99, and consisted of the console, a R.O.B., a NES Zapper (electronic gun), and two additional game paks: Duck Hunt and Gyromite.

For the remainder of the NES's commercial lifespan in North America, Nintendo frequently repackaged the console in new configurations to capitalize on newer accessories or popular game titles. Subsequent bundle packages included the NES Action Set, released in November 1988 for US$149.99,^[26] which replaced both of the earlier two sets, and included the console, the NES Zapper, two game controllers, and a multicart version of Super Mario Bros. and Duck Hunt. The Action Set became the most successful of the packages released by Nintendo. One month later, in December 1988, to coincide with the release of the Power Pad floor mat controller, Nintendo released a new Power Set bundle, consisting of the console, the Power Pad, the NES Zapper, two controllers, and a multicart containing Super Mario Bros., Duck Hunt, and World Class Track Meet.^[27] In 1990, a Sports Set bundle was released, including the console, a NES Satellite infrared wireless multitap adapter, four game controllers, and a multicart featuring Super Spike V'Ball and Nintendo World Cup.^[28]

It is difficult to count the total number of games released on the NES. One can look at the number of games licensed by Nintendo of America or Japan, or combine them, or even add the numerous unlicensed titles. All told, well over 1,000 games are available on the NES platform.

Two more bundle packages were released using the original model NES console. The Challenge Set included the console, two controllers, and a Super Mario Bros. 3 game pak. The Basic Set, first released in 1987, included only the console and two controllers with no pack-in cartridge. Instead, it contained a book called the The Official Nintendo Player's Guide, which contained detailed information for every NES game made up to that point. Finally, the redesigned NES 2 was released as part of the final Nintendo-released bundle package, once again under the name Control Deck, including the new style NES 2 console, and one redesigned "dogbone" game controller. Released in October 1993, this final bundle retailed for $49.99, and remained in production until the discontinuation of the NES in 1995.^[21]

[edit] Regional differences

The Famicom Disk System was a peripheral available only for the Japanese Famicom that utilized games stored on "Disk Cards", reminiscent of 3.5" floppy diskettes.

Although the Japanese Famicom and the international NES included essentially the same hardware, there were certain key differences between the two systems:

Different case design. The Famicom featured a top-loading cartridge slot, a 15-pin expansion port located on the unit’s front panel for accessories (as the controllers were hard-wired to the back of the console), and a red and white color scheme. The NES featured a front-loading cartridge slot (often jokingly compared to a toaster), and a more subdued gray, black and red color scheme. An expansion port was found on the bottom of the unit, and the cartridge connector pinout was changed.
60-pin vs. 72-pin cartridges. The original Famicom and the re-released AV Family Computer both utilized a 60-pin cartridge design, which resulted in smaller cartridges than the NES, which utilized a 72-pin design. Four pins were used for the 10NES lockout chip.^[29] Ten pins were added that connected a cartridge directly to the expansion port on the bottom of the unit. Finally, two pins that allowed cartridges to provide their own sound expansion chips were removed. Many early games (such as Stack-Up) released in North America were simply Famicom cartridges attached to an adapter (such as the T89 Cartridge Converter) to allow them to fit inside the NES hardware. Nintendo did this to reduce costs and inventory by using the same cartridge boards in North America and Japan.
A number of peripheral devices and software packages were released for the Famicom. Few of these devices were ever released outside of Japan.
- Famicom Disk System (FDS). Although not included with the original system, a popular floppy disk drive peripheral was released for the Famicom in Japan only. Nintendo never released the Famicom Disk System outside of Japan, citing concerns about software bootlegging. Notable games released for the FDS include The Legend of Zelda, Yume Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic, Metroid, and the original Super Mario Bros. 2.^{[citation needed]}
- Famicom BASIC is an implementation of BASIC for the Famicom. It allowed the user to program their own games. Many programmers got their first experience on programming for the console this way.
- Famicom MODEM is a modem that allowed connection to a Nintendo server which provided content such as jokes, news (mainly about Nintendo), game tips, and weather reports for Japan; it also allowed a small number of programs to be downloaded. A modem was, however, tested in the United States, by the Minnesota State Lottery. It would have allowed players to buy scratchcards and play the lottery with their NES. It was not released because minors were able to play the lottery illegally and anonymously.^[30]
External sound chips. The Famicom had two cartridge pins that allowed cartridges to provide external sound enhancements. They were originally intended to facilitate the Famicom Disk System’s external sound chip. These pins were removed from the cartridge port of the NES, and relocated to the bottom expansion port. As a result, individual cartridges could not make use of this functionality, and many NES localizations suffered from inferior sound compared to their equivalent Famicom versions. Castlevania III: Dracula's Curse is a notable example of this problem.

Unlike the NES, the Famicom's controllers were hardwired to the system itself. The 2nd controller eliminated the Start and Select buttons, replacing it with a microphone and a volume control slider.

Hardwired controllers. The Famicom’s original design includes hardwired, non-removable controllers. In addition, the second controller featured an internal microphone for use with certain games and lacked SELECT and START buttons. Both the controllers and the microphone were subsequently dropped from the redesigned AV Famicom in favor of the two seven-pin controller ports on the front panel used in the NES from its inception.
Lockout circuitry. The Famicom contained no lockout hardware, and, as a result, unlicensed cartridges (both legitimate and bootleg) were extremely common throughout Japan and the Far East. The original NES (but not the top-loading NES 2) contained the 10NES lockout chip, which significantly increased the challenges faced by unlicensed developers. Tinkerers at home in later years discovered that disassembling the NES and cutting the fourth pin of the lockout chip would change the chip’s mode of operation from "lock" to "key", removing all effects and greatly improving the console’s ability to play legal games, as well as bootlegs and converted imports.^[31] The European release of the console used a regional lockout system that prevented cartridges released in region A from being played on region B consoles, and vice versa.^[19]
Audio/video output. The original Famicom featured an RF modulator plug for audio/video output, while the original NES featured both an RF modulator and RCA composite output cables. The AV Famicom featured only RCA composite output, and the top-loading NES 2 featured only RF modulator output. The original North American NES was the first game console to feature direct composite video output so people could hook it up to a stand-alone composite monitor.
Third-party cartridge manufacturing. In Japan, six companies, namely Nintendo, Konami, Capcom, Namco, Bandai, and Jaleco, manufactured the cartridges for the Famicom. This allowed these companies to develop their own customized chips designed for specific purposes, such as Konami's VRC 6 and VRC 7 sound chips that increased the quality of sound in their games.
Different names. In eastern Europe the NES was called Pegasus.^[32]

[edit] Game controllers

See also: List of Nintendo Entertainment System accessories

Before the 1984 product recall, Famicom controllers were manufactured with square-shaped A and B buttons.

The game controller used for both the NES and the Famicom featured an oblong brick-like design with a simple four button layout: two round buttons labelled "B" and "A", a "START" button, and a "SELECT" button. Additionally, the controllers utilized the cross-shaped D-pad, designed by Nintendo employee Gunpei Yokoi for Nintendo Game & Watch systems, to replace the bulkier joysticks on earlier gaming consoles’ controllers.

The original model Famicom featured two game controllers, both of which were hardwired to the back of the console. The second controller lacked the START and SELECT buttons, but featured a small microphone. Relatively few games made use of this feature. The earliest produced Famicom units initially had square A and B buttons.^[33] This was changed to the circular designs because of the square buttons being caught in the controller casing when pressed down, and glitches within the hardware causing the system to freeze occasionally while playing a game.

In addition to featuring a revised color scheme that matched the more subdued tones of the console itself, NES controllers were hot swappable and lacked the microphone featured in Famicom controllers.

The NES dropped the hardwired controllers, instead featuring two custom 7-pin ports on the front of the console. Also in contrast to the Famicom, the controllers included with the NES were identical to each other—the second controller lacked the microphone that was present on the Famicom model, and possessed the same START and SELECT buttons as the primary controller.

Although several specialty controllers were marketed for the NES and the Famicom, few were commercially successful. Support for the Zapper, a light gun accessory, was limited to only 16 game titles.

A number of special controllers designed for use with specific games were released for the system, though very few such devices proved particularly popular. Such devices included, but were not limited to, the NES Zapper (a light gun), the Power Pad, and the ill-fated R.O.B. and Power Glove. The original Famicom featured a deepened DA-15 expansion port on the front of the unit, which was used to connect most auxiliary devices. On the NES, these special controllers were generally connected to one of the two control ports on the front of the unit.

Near the end of the NES's lifespan, upon the release of the AV Famicom and the top-loading NES 2, the design of the game controllers was modified slightly. Though the original button layout was retained, the redesigned device abandoned the "brick" shell in favor of a "dog bone" shape reminiscent of the controllers of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. In addition, the AV Famicom joined its international counterpart and dropped the hardwired controllers in favor of detachable controller ports. However, the controllers included with the Famicom AV, despite being the "dog bone" type, had cables which were a short three feet long, as opposed to the standard six feet of NES controllers.

In recent years the original NES controller has become one of the most recognizable symbols of the system. Nintendo has mimicked the look of the controller in several recent products, from promotional merchandise to limited edition versions of the Game Boy Advance SP and Game Boy Micro handheld game consoles.

[edit] Hardware design flaws

The official NES Cleaning Kit was intended to address flaws in the NES design that caused cartridge connectors to be particularly susceptible to interference from dirt and dust.

When Nintendo released the NES in the United States, the design styling was deliberately different from that of other game consoles. Nintendo wanted to distinguish its product from those of competitors, and to avoid the generally poor reputation that game consoles had acquired following the video game crash of 1983. One result of this philosophy was a front-loading zero insertion force (ZIF) cartridge socket designed to resemble the front-loading mechanism of a VCR. The ZIF connector worked quite well when both the connector and the cartridges were clean and the pins on the connector were new. Unfortunately, the ZIF connector was not truly zero insertion force. When a user inserted the cartridge into the NES, the force of pressing the cartridge down and into place bent the contact pins slightly, as well as pressing the cartridge’s ROM board back into the cartridge itself. Repeated insertion and removal of cartridges caused the pins to wear out relatively quickly, and the ZIF design proved far more prone to interference by dirt and dust than an industry-standard card edge connector.^[34] Exacerbating the problem was Nintendo’s choice of materials; the slot connector that the cartridge was actually inserted into was highly prone to corrosion.^[35] Add-on peripherals like the popular Game Genie cheat cartridge tended to further exacerbate this problem by bending the front-loading mechanism during gameplay.^[36] Recently, third-party manufacturers have been producing gold clones of the NES connector piece to replace the existing one and prevent corrosion.^[37]

The 10NES authentication chip contributed to the system's reliability problems. The circuit was ultimately removed from the remodeled NES 2.

Problems with the 10NES lockout chip frequently resulted in the system’s most infamous problem: the blinking red power light, in which the system appears to turn itself on and off repeatedly. The lockout chip was quite finicky, requiring precise timing in order to permit the system to boot. Dirty, aging, and bent connectors would often disrupt the timing, resulting in the blink effect.^[38] Alternatively, the console would turn on but only show a gray or green screen. Users attempted to solve this problem by blowing air onto the cartridge connectors, licking the edge connector, slapping the side of the system after inserting a cartridge, and/or cleaning the connectors with alcohol which, observing the back of the cartridge, was not endorsed by Nintendo. Many of the most frequent attempts to fix this problem ran the risk of damaging the cartridge and/or system. In 1989, Nintendo released an official NES Cleaning Kit to help users clean malfunctioning cartridges and consoles.

With the release of the top-loading NES 2 toward the end of the NES's lifespan, Nintendo resolved the problems by switching to a standard card edge connector, and eliminating the lockout chip. All of the Famicom systems used standard card edge connectors, as did Nintendo’s subsequent game consoles, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the Nintendo 64.

In response to these hardware flaws, "Nintendo Authorized Repair Centers" sprang up across the United States. According to Nintendo, the authorization program was designed to ensure that the machines were properly repaired. Nintendo would ship the necessary replacement parts only to shops that had enrolled in the authorization program. In practice, the authorization process consisted of nothing more than paying a fee to Nintendo for the privilege. In a recent trend, sites like Nintendo Repair Shop Inc. have sprung up to offer Nintendo repair parts, guides and services, that replace those formerly offered by the authorized repair centers.^[39]

[edit] Third-party licensing

The Nintendo Seal of Quality was placed on every officially licensed NES cartridge released in North America.

Nintendo’s near monopoly on the home video game market left it with a degree of influence over the industry exceeding even that of Atari during Atari's heyday in the early 1980s. Unlike Atari, which never actively courted third-party developers (and even went to court in an attempt to force Activision to cease production of Atari 2600 games), Nintendo had anticipated and encouraged the involvement of third-party software developers—but strictly on Nintendo’s terms. To this end, a 10NES authentication chip was placed in every console, and another was placed in every officially licensed cartridge. If the console's chip could not detect a counterpart chip inside the cartridge, the game would not load. Because Nintendo controlled the production of all cartridges, it was able to enforce strict rules on its third-party developers. These extremely restricted production runs would end up damaging several smaller software developers: even if demand for their games was high, they could only produce as much profit as Nintendo allowed.^[10]

[edit] Unlicensed games

Unlicensed games, such as Wisdom Tree’s Bible Adventures, were often released in cartridges which looked very different from typical NES game packs.

Several companies, refusing to pay the licensing fee or having been rejected by Nintendo, found ways to circumvent the console's authentication system. Most of these companies created circuits that used a voltage spike to disable the 10NES chip in the NES. A few unlicensed games released in Europe and Australia came in the form of a dongle that would be connected to a licensed game, in order to use the licensed game’s 10NES chip for authentication.

Atari Games created a line of NES products under the name Tengen, and took a different approach. Afraid of damaging NES units and being liable for it by using the voltage spike technique, the company obtained a description of the lockout chip from the United States Patent and Trademark Office by falsely claiming that it was required to defend against present infringement claims in a legal case. Tengen then used these documents to design its Rabbit chip, which duplicated the function of the 10NES. Nintendo sued Tengen for copyright infringement, which Tengen lost. Tengen's antitrust claims against Nintendo were never finally decided.^[40]

Following the introduction of the Sega Mega Drive, Nintendo began to face real competition in the industry, and in the early 1990s was forced to reevaluate its stance towards its developers, many of whom had begun to defect to other systems. When the console was reissued as the NES 2, the 10NES chip was omitted from the console, marking the end of Nintendo’s most notorious hold over its third-party developers.

Pirated clones of NES hardware remained in production for many years after the original had been discontinued. Such devices were frequently built to superficially resemble younger consoles, such as the PlayStation.

[edit] Hardware clones

Main article: Nintendo Entertainment System hardware clone

A thriving market of unlicensed NES hardware clones emerged during the heyday of the console’s popularity. Initially, such clones were popular in markets where Nintendo never issued a legitimate version of the system. In particular, the Dendy (Russian: Денди), an unlicensed hardware clone produced in Russia and other nations of the former Soviet Union, emerged as the most popular video game console of its time in that setting, and it enjoyed a degree of fame roughly equivalent to that experienced by the NES/Famicom in North America and Japan. The Micro Genius (Simplified Chinese: 小天才) was marketed in Southeast Asia as an alternative to the Famicom, and Samurai was the popular PAL alternative to the NES.

The unlicensed clone market has persisted, and even flourished, following Nintendo’s discontinuation of the NES. Some of the more exotic of these resulting systems have gone beyond the functionality of the original hardware, and have included variations such as a portable system with a color LCD (e.g. Pocket Famicom). Others have been produced with certain specialized markets in mind, including various "educational computer packages" which include copies of some of the NES’s educational titles and come complete with a clone of the Famicom BASIC keyboard, transforming the system into a rather primitive personal computer.^[41] These unauthorized clones have been helped by the invention of the so called NES-on-a-chip or NoaC.

As was the case with unlicensed software titles, Nintendo has typically gone to the courts to prohibit the manufacture and sale of unlicensed cloned hardware. Many of the clone vendors have included built-in copies of licensed Nintendo software, which constitutes copyright infringement in most countries. As recently as 2004, Nintendo of America has filed suits against manufacturers of the Power Player Super Joy III, a NES clone system that had been sold in North America, Europe, and Australia.

Although most hardware clones were not produced under license by Nintendo, certain companies were granted licenses to produce NES-compatible devices. The Sharp Corporation produced at least two such clones: the Twin Famicom and the SHARP 19SC111 television. The Twin Famicom was compatible with both Famicom cartridges and Famicom Disk System disks. It was available in two colors (red and black) and used hardwired controllers (as did the original Famicom), but it featured a different case design. The SHARP 19SC111 television was a television which included a built-in Famicom.^[42] A similar licensing deal was reached with Hyundai Electronics, who manufactured the system under the name Comboy in the South Korean market. This deal with Hyundai was made necessary because of the South Korean government's wide ban on all Japanese "cultural products," which remained in effect until 1998 and ensured that the only way Japanese products could legally enter the South Korean market was through licensing to a third-party (non-Japanese) distributor (see also Korean-Japanese disputes).^[9]

[edit] Technical specifications

[edit] Chassis/casing

North American cartridges (or "Game Paks," pictured) were significantly longer than their Japanese counterparts, but were not as wide.

The original Japanese Famicom was predominantly white plastic, with dark red trim. It featured a top-loading cartridge slot, and grooves on both sides of the deck in which the hardwired game controllers could be placed when not in use.

The original version of the North American NES used a radically different design. The NES's color scheme was two different shades of gray, with black trim. The top-loading cartridge slot was replaced with a front-loading mechanism. The slot is covered by a small, hinged door that can be opened to insert or remove a cartridge, and closed at other times. The dimensions of this model are 10" width by 8" length by 3.5" height. When opened, the cartridge slot door adds an additional 1" height to the unit.

The remodelled NES 2 uses the same basic color scheme, although the power switch is colored a bright red. Like the original Famicom, it utilizes a top-loading cartridge slot. The NES 2 is considerably more compact than the original model, measuring 6" by 7" by 1.5".

All officially licensed North American and European cartridges are 5.5" long by 4.1" wide. Japanese cartridges are shaped slightly differently, measuring only 3" in length, but 5.3" in width.

[edit] Central processing unit

Versions of the NES console released in PAL regions incorporated a Ricoh 2A07 CPU.

For its central processing unit (CPU), the NES uses an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Ricoh based on a MOS Technology 6502 core. It incorporates custom sound hardware and a restricted DMA controller on-die. NTSC (North America and Japan) versions of the console use the Ricoh 2A03 (or RP2A03), which runs at 1.79 MHz.^[43] PAL (Europe and Australia) versions of console utilize the Ricoh 2A07 (or RP2A07), which is identical to the 2A03 save for the fact that it runs at a slower 1.66 MHz clock rate.^[44]

[edit] Memory

The NES contains 2 KB of onboard random access memory (RAM). A game cartridge may contain expanded RAM to increase this amount. The system supports up to 49,128 bytes (just shy of 48 KB) for read-only memory (ROM), expanded RAM, and cartridge input/output. The process of bank switching can increase this amount by orders of magnitude.^[43]

[edit] Video

The NES utilizes a custom-made picture processing unit (PPU) developed by Ricoh. The version of the processor used in NTSC models of the console, named the RP2C02, operates at 5.37 MHz, while the version used in PAL models, named the RP2C07, operates at 5.32 MHz.^[44] Both the RP2C02 and RP2C07 output composite video.^[43] Special versions of the NES's hardware designed for use in video arcades use other variations of the PPU. The PlayChoice-10 uses the RP2C03, which runs at 5.37 MHz and outputs RGB video at NTSC frequencies. Two different variations were used for Nintendo Vs. Series hardware: the RP2C04 and the RP2C05. Both of these operate at 5.37 MHz and output RGB video at NTSC frequencies. Additionally, both utilize irregular palettes to prevent easy ROM swapping of games.^[45] All variations of this PPU feature 256 bytes of on-die sprite position / attributable RAM ("OAM") and 28 bytes of on-die palette RAM to allow selection of background and sprite colors. This memory is stored on separate buses internal to the PPU. The console's 2 KB of onboard RAM may be used for tile maps and attributes on the NES board, and 8 KB of tile pattern ROM or RAM may be included on a cartridge. Using bank switching, virtually any amount of additional cartridge memory can be used, limited only by manufacturing costs.^[43]

The system has an available color palette of 48 colors and 5 grays. Red, green, and blue can be individually darkened at specific screen regions using carefully timed code. Up to 25 colors may be used on one scanline: a background color, four sets of three tile colors, and four sets of three sprite colors. This total does not include color de-emphasis.^[43]

A total of 64 sprites may be displayed onscreen at a given time without reloading sprites mid-screen. Sprites may be either 8 pixels by 8 pixels, or 8 pixels by 16 pixels, although the choice must be made globally and it affects all sprites. Up to eight sprites may be present on one scanline, using a flag to indicate when additional sprites are to be dropped. This flag allows the software to rotate sprite priorities, increasing maximum amount of sprites, but typically causing flicker.^[43]

The PPU allows only one scrolling layer, though horizontal scrolling can be changed on a per-scanline basis. More advanced programming methods enable the same to be done for vertical scrolling.^[43]

The standard display resolution of the NES is 256 horizontal pixels by 240 vertical pixels. Typically, games designed for NTSC-based systems had an effective resolution of only 256 by 224 pixels, as the top and bottom 8 scanlines are not visible on most television sets. For additional video memory bandwidth, it was possible to turn off the screen before the raster reached the very bottom.^[43]

Video output connections varied from one model of the console to the next. The original Japanese Famicom featured only radio frequency (RF) modulator output. When the console was released in North America and Europe, support for composite video through RCA connectors was added in addition to the RF modulator. The AV Famicom dropped the RF modulator entirely and adopted composite video output via a proprietary 12-pin "multi-out" connector first introduced for the Super Famicom / Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Conversely, the North American re-released NES 2 most closely resembled the original model Famicom, in that it featured RF modulator output only.^[33] Finally, the PlayChoice-10 utilized an inverted RGB video output.

[edit] Audio

The NES board supported a total of five sound channels. These included two pulse wave channels of variable duty cycle (12.5%, 25%, 50%, and 75%), with a volume control of sixteen levels, and hardware pitch bending supporting frequencies ranging from 54 Hz to 28 kHz. Additional channels included one fixed-volume triangle wave channel supporting frequencies from 27 Hz to 56 kHz, one sixteen-volume level white noise channel supporting two modes (by adjusting inputs on a linear feedback shift register) at sixteen preprogrammed frequencies, and one delta pulse-width modulation channel with six bits of range, using 1-bit delta encoding at sixteen preprogrammed sample rates from 4.2 kHz to 33.5 kHz. This final channel was also capable of playing standard pulse-code modulation (PCM) sound by writing individual 7-bit values at timed intervals.^[43]

Super Nintendo Entertainment System

2008-03-31T06:48:00.000-07:00

The Super Nintendo Entertainment System or Super NES (also called SNES^a[›] and Super Nintendo) is a 16-bit video game console that was released by Nintendo in North America, Europe, Australasia (Oceania), and South America between 1990 and 1993. In Japan and Southeast Asia, the system is called the Super Family Computer, Super Famicom (スーパーファミコン, Sūpā Famikon^?), or SFC for short. In South Korea, it is known as the Super Comboy and was distributed by Hyundai Electronics. Although each version is essentially the same, several forms of regional lockout prevent direct compatibility.

The Super Nintendo Entertainment System was Nintendo's second home console, following the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). The console introduced advanced graphics and sound capabilities that compensated for its relatively slow CPU, compared with other consoles at the time. Additionally, the system's support for numerous enhancement chips (which shipped as part of certain game cartridges) helped to keep it competitive in the marketplace.

The SNES was a global success, becoming the best-selling console of the 16-bit era despite its relatively late start and the fierce competition it faced in North America from Sega's Genesis console. Some consider the SNES to embody the "Golden Age of video games", citing its many groundbreaking games and the perceived focus on gameplay over graphics and technical gimmicks.^[4] Others question this perceived romanticism, believing the system was just another step in the evolution of video game technology.^[5] The SNES remained popular well into the 32-bit era, and although Nintendo has dropped all support for the console, it continues to be popular among fans, collectors, and emulation enthusiasts, some of whom are still making "homebrew" ROM images.

[edit] History

To compete with the popular NES/Famicom, NEC launched the TurboGrafx-16/PC-Engine in 1987, and Sega followed suit with the Genesis/Mega Drive in 1988. Both systems were built on 16-bit architectures and offered improved graphics and sound over the 8-bit NES. However, the NES would continue to dominate the gaming market for several years before Sega's system finally became successful.^[6] Nintendo executives were initially reluctant to design a new system, but they reconsidered when the NES hardware began to show its age. Seeing its dominance in the market slipping, Nintendo was compelled to create a new console to compete with its 16-bit rivals.^[7]

[edit] Launch

Designed by Masayuki Uemura, the designer of the original Famicom, the Super Famicom was released in Japan on Wednesday November 21, 1990 for ¥25,000 (US$210). It was an instant success: Nintendo's initial shipment of 300,000 units sold out within hours, and the resulting social disturbance led the Japanese government to ask video game manufacturers to schedule future console releases on weekends.^[8] The system's release also gained the attention of the Yakuza, leading to a decision to ship the devices at night to avoid robbery.^[9]

With the Super Famicom quickly outselling its chief rivals, Nintendo reasserted itself as the leader of the Japanese console market.^[10] Nintendo's success was partially due to its retention of most of its key third-party developers from its earlier system, including Capcom, Konami, Tecmo, Square Co., Koei, and Enix.^[11]

"Nintendo's strongest selling point, however, was the game that came packed in with the Super NES console—Super Mario World."^[12]

In August 1991,^b[›] Nintendo released the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, a redesigned version of the Super Famicom, in North America for US$199. The SNES was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland in April 1992 for GB£150, with a German release following a few weeks later. The PAL region versions of the console use the Japanese Super Famicom design, except for labeling and the length of the joypad leads. Both the NES and Super NES were released in Brazil in 1993 by Playtronic, a joint venture between the toy company Estrela and Gradiente.^[13]

The Super NES and Super Famicom launched with only a few games, but these games were well-received in the marketplace. In Japan, only two games were initially available: Super Mario World and F-Zero.^[14] In North America and Europe, Super Mario World shipped with the console, and other initial titles included F-Zero, Pilotwings (which demonstrated the console's "Mode 7" pseudo-3D rendering capability), SimCity, and Gradius III.^[15]

[edit] Console wars

Main article: Console wars

The rivalry between Nintendo and Sega resulted in one of the fiercest console wars in video game history,^[16] in which Sega positioned the Genesis as the "cool" console, with edgy advertisements occasionally attacking the competition and more mature titles aimed at older gamers.^[17] Despite the Genesis's head start, its much larger library of games, as well as its lower price point,^[18] market share between the SNES and the Genesis was about even in April 1992,^[19] and neither console could maintain a definitive lead for several years. The Super NES eventually prevailed, dominating the American 16-bit console market,^[20] and would even remain popular well into the 32-bit generation.^[21]

[edit] Changes in policy

During the NES era, Nintendo maintained exclusive control over titles released for the system—the company had to approve every game, each third-party developer could only release up to five games per year, those games could not be released on another console within two years, and Nintendo was the exclusive manufacturer and supplier of NES cartridges. However, competition from Sega's console brought an end to this practice; in 1990, Acclaim began releasing games for both platforms, with most of Nintendo's other licensees following suit over the next several years; Capcom (which licensed some games to Sega instead of producing them directly) and Square were the most notable holdouts.^[22]

Nintendo also maintained a strict censorship policy that, among other things, limited the amount of violence in the games on its systems. One game, Mortal Kombat, would challenge this policy. A surprise hit in arcades in 1992, Mortal Kombat features splashes of blood and finishing moves that often depict one character dismembering the other. Because the Genesis version retained the gore while the SNES version did not, it outsold the SNES version three to one.^[23]^[24]

Game players were not the only ones to notice the violence in this game; US Senators Herb Kohl and Joe Lieberman convened a Congressional hearing on December 9, 1993 to investigate the marketing of violent video games to children.^c[›] While Nintendo took the high ground with moderate success, the hearings led to the creation of the Interactive Digital Software Association and the Entertainment Software Rating Board, and the inclusion of ratings on all video games.^[23]^[24] With these ratings in place, Nintendo decided its censorship policies were no longer needed. Consequently, the SNES port of Mortal Kombat II was released uncensored, and this time Nintendo's version outsold Sega's.^[23]^[24]

[edit] 32-bit era and beyond

While other companies were moving on to 32-bit systems, Rare and Nintendo proved that the Super NES was still a strong contender in the market. In November 1994, Rare released Donkey Kong Country, a platform game featuring 3D models and textures pre-rendered on SGI workstations. With its detailed graphics and high-quality music, Donkey Kong Country rivaled the aesthetic quality of games that were being released on newer 32-bit CD-based consoles. In the last 45 days of 1994, the game sold 6.1 million units, making it the fastest-selling video game in history to that date. This game sent a message that early 32-bit systems had little to offer over the Super NES, and helped make way for the more advanced consoles on the horizon.^[25]^[26]

In October 1997, Nintendo released a redesigned SNES 2 in North America for US$99, which included the pack-in game Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island.^[27] Like the earlier NES 2, the new model was slimmer and lighter than its predecessor, but it lacked S-Video and RGB output, and it was among the last major SNES-related releases in the region. A similarly redesigned Super Famicom Jr. was released in Japan at around the same time.^[28]

Nintendo of America ceased production of the SNES in 1999,^[29] about two years after releasing Kirby's Dream Land 3 (its last first-party game for the system) on November 27, 1997. In Japan, Nintendo continued production of the Super Famicom until September 2003,^[30] and new games were produced until the year 2000, ending with the release of Metal Slader Glory Director's Cut on December 1, 2000.^[31]

In recent years, many SNES titles have been ported to the Game Boy Advance, which has similar video capabilities. In 2005, Nintendo announced that SNES titles would be made available for download via the Wii's Virtual Console service.^[32] In 2007, Nintendo announced that it would no longer repair Famicom or Super Famicom systems due to an increasing shortage of the necessary parts.^[33]

[edit] Emulation

See also: List of SNES emulators

Like the NES before it, the SNES has retained interest among its fans even following its decline in the marketplace. It has continued to thrive on the second-hand market and through console emulation. The SNES has taken much the same revival path as the NES (see History of the Nintendo Entertainment System).

ZSNES v1.51 user interface

Emulation projects began with the initial release of VSSMC in 1994, and Super Pasofami became the first working SNES emulator in 1996.^[34] During that time, two competing emulation projects—Snes96 and Snes97—merged to form a new initiative entitled Snes9x.^[35] In 1997, SNES enthusiasts began programming an emulator named ZSNES.^[36] These two have remained among the best-known SNES emulators, although development continues on others as well. Recently there has been a push for exact emulation,^d[›] begun in 2003 by members of both the Snes9x and ZSNES teams and others,^[37] and currently led by the development of bsnes.^[38]

Nintendo took the same stance against the distribution of SNES ROM image files and emulation as it did with the NES, insisting that they represented flagrant software piracy.^[39] Proponents of SNES emulation cite discontinued production of the SNES, the right of the owner of the respective game to make a personal backup, space shifting for private use, the desire to develop homebrew games for the system, the frailty of SNES cartridges and consoles, and the lack of certain foreign imports.^[40] Despite Nintendo's attempts to stop the proliferation of such projects, emulators and ROM files continue to be available on the Internet.

The SNES was one of the first systems to attract the attention of amateur fan translators: Final Fantasy V was the first major work of fan translation, and was completed in 1997.^[41]

Emulation of the SNES is now available on handheld units, such as Sony's PlayStation Portable (PSP),^[42] the Nintendo DS^[43] and Game Boy Advance,^[44] the Gizmondo,^[45] and the GP2X by GamePark Holdings,^[46] as well as PDAs.^[47] Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii marks the introduction of officially sanctioned SNES emulation.

[edit] Technical specifications

The design of the Super NES incorporates a relatively slow CPU (half the speed of the Mega Drive), but the powerful graphics and sound co-processors allowed impressive tiling and Mode 7 effects, many times more colors, and audio quality that represented a massive leap over the competition.^[48] Individual game cartridges can easily supply further custom chips as needed.

[edit] Central processing unit

CPU reference
Processor	Ricoh 5A22, based on a 16-bit 65c816 core
Clock Rates (NTSC)	Input: 21.47727 MHz Bus: 3.58 MHz, 2.68 MHz, or 1.79 MHz
Clock Rates (PAL)	Input: 21.28137 MHz Bus: 3.55 MHz, 2.66 MHz, or 1.77 MHz
Buses	24-bit and 8-bit address buses, 8-bit data bus
Additional Features	DMA and HDMA Timed IRQ Parallel I/O processing Hardware multiplication and division

The CPU is a Nintendo-custom 5A22 processor, based around a 16-bit 65c816 core. The CPU employs a variable bus speed depending on the memory region being accessed for each instruction cycle: the input clock is divided by 6, 8, or 12 to obtain the bus clock rate. Non-access cycles, most register accesses, and some general accesses use the divisor of 6. WRAM accesses and other general accesses use the divisor of 8. Only the controller port serial-access registers use the divisor of 12.^[49]

The chip has an 8-bit data bus, controlled by two address buses. The 24-bit "Bus A" is used for general accesses, while the 8-bit "Bus B" is used for support chip registers (mainly the video and audio processors).^[49] Normally only one bus is used at a time, however the built in direct memory access (DMA) unit places a read signal on one bus and a write signal on the other to achieve block transfer speeds of up to 2.68 MB/s (MiB/s).^[50]

The DMA unit has 8 independent channels, each of which can be used in two modes. General DMA transfers up to 64 KB in one shot, while H-blank DMA (HDMA) transfers 1–4 bytes at the end of each video scanline. HDMA is typically used to change video parameters to achieve effects such as perspective, split-screen, and non-rectangular windowing without tying up the main CPU.^[50]

The 5A22 also contains an 8-bit parallel I/O port (which was mostly unused in the SNES); controller port interface circuits, including both serial and parallel access to controller data; a 16-bit multiplication and division unit; and circuitry for generating Non-Maskable interrupts on V-blank and IRQ interrupts on calculated screen positions.^[50]

[edit] Video

Video reference
Resolutions	Progressive: 256x224, 512x224, 256x239, 512x239 Interlaced: 512x448, 512x478
Pixel Depth	2, 4, 7, or 8 bpp indexed; 8 or 11 bpp direct
Total Colors	32768 (15-bit)
Sprites	128, 32 max per line; up to 64x64 pixels
Backgrounds	Up to 4 planes; each up to 1024x1024 pixels
Effects	Pixelization (mosaic) per background Color addition and subtraction Clipping windows (per background, affecting color, math, or both) Scrolling per 8x8 tile Mode 7 matrix operations

The picture processing unit (PPU) consists of two separate but closely tied IC packages, which may be considered as a single entity. It also contains 64 KB (KiB) of SRAM for storing video data (VRAM), 544 bytes of object attribute memory (OAM) for storing sprite data, and 512 bytes of color generator RAM (CGRAM) for storing palette data. The PPU is clocked by the same signal as the CPU, and generates a pixel every two or four cycles. Both NTSC and PAL systems use the same PPU chips, with one pin per chip selecting NTSC or PAL operation.^[50]

Images may be output at 256 or 512 pixels horizontal resolution and 224, 239, 448, or 478 pixels vertically. Vertical resolutions of 224 or 239 are usually output in progressive scan, while 448 and 478 resolutions are interlaced. Colors are chosen from the 15-bit RGB color space, for a total of 32,768 possible colors. Graphics consist of up to 128 sprites and up to 4 background layers, all made up of combinations of 8x8 pixel tiles. Most graphics use palettes stored in CGRAM, with color 0 of any palette representing transparency.^[50]

Sprites can be 8x8, 16x16, 32x32, or 64x64 pixels, each using one of eight 16-color palettes and tiles from one of two blocks of 256 in VRAM. Sprites may be flipped horizontally and vertically as a whole. Up to 32 sprites and 34 8x8 sprite tiles may appear on any one line; exceeding these limits causes excess sprites or tiles to be dropped. Each sprite lies on one of 4 planes, however a lower-numbered sprite will always cover a higher-numbered sprite even if the latter is on a higher priority plane. This quirk is often used for complex clipping effects.^[50]

Background layers in most modes range from 32x32 to 128x128 tiles, with each tile on one of two planes ("foreground" and "background") and using one of 8 palettes. Tiles are taken from a per-layer set of up to 1024 (as VRAM permits) and can be flipped horizontally and vertically. Each layer may be scrolled both horizontally and vertically. The number of background layers and the size of the palettes depends on the mode:^[50]

Mode 0: 4 layers, all using 4-color palettes. Each BG uses its own section of the SNES palette.
Mode 1: 3 layers, two using 16-color palettes and one using 4-color palettes.
Mode 2: 2 layers, both using 16-color palettes. Each tile can be individually scrolled.
Mode 3: 2 layers, one using the full 256-color palette and one using 16-color palettes. The 256-color layer can also directly specify colors from an 11-bit (RGB443) colorspace.
Mode 4: 2 layers, one using the full 256-color palette and one using 4-color palettes. The 256-color layer can directly specify colors, and each tile can be individually scrolled.
Mode 5: 2 layers, one using 16-color palettes and one using 4-color palettes. Tile decoding is altered to facilitate use of the 512-width and interlaced resolutions.
Mode 6: 1 layer, using 16-color palettes. Tile decoding is as in Mode 5, and each tile can be individually scrolled.

A typical Mode 7 screen

Mode 7: 1 layer of 128x128 tiles from a set of 256, which may be interpreted as a 256-color one-plane layer or a 128-color two-plane layer. The layer may be rotated and scaled using matrix transformations. HDMA is often used to change the matrix parameters for each scanline to generate perspective effects.

Background layers may be individually pixelized, and layers and sprites can be individually clipped and combined by color addition or subtraction to generate more complex effects and greater color depths than can be specified directly.^[50]

The PPU may be instructed to latch the current pixel position at any time during image output, both by game software and by the device attached to controller port 2. The game software may then read back this latched position. The PPU may also be used for fast 16-bit by 8-bit signed multiplication.^[50]

[edit] Audio

Audio reference
Processors	Sony SPC700, Sony DSP
Clock Rates	Input: 24.576 MHz SPC700: 1.024 MHz
Format	16-bit ADPCM, 8 channels
Output	32 kHz 16-bit stereo
Effects	ADSR envelope control Frequency scaling and modulation using Gaussian interpolation Echo: 8-tap FIR filter, with up to .24s delay Noise generation

The audio subsystem consists of an 8-bit Sony SPC700, a 16-bit DSP, 64 KB (KiB) of SRAM shared by the two chips, and a 64 byte boot ROM. The audio subsystem is almost completely independent from the rest of the system: it is clocked at a nominal 24.576 MHz in both NTSC and PAL systems, and can only communicate with the CPU via 4 registers on Bus B.^[51]^[52]

RAM is accessed at 3.072 MHz, with accesses multiplexed between the SPC700 (¹⁄₃) and the DSP (²⁄₃). This RAM is used to store the SPC700 program and stack, the audio sample data and pointer table, and the DSP's echo buffer.^[51]

The SPC700 runs programs (uploaded using the boot ROM program) to accept instructions and data from the CPU and to manipulate the DSP registers to generate the appropriate music and sound effects. The DSP generates a 16-bit waveform at 32 kHz by mixing input from 8 independent voices and an 8-tap FIR filter typically used for reverberation. Each voice can play its PCM sample at a variable rate, with Gaussian interpolation, stereo panning, and ADSR, linear, non-linear, or direct volume envelope adjustment. The voice and FIR filter outputs are mixed both for direct output and for future input into the FIR filter. All audio samples are ADPCM compressed using Bit Rate Reduction.^[51]

Hardware on the cartridge, expansion port, or both can provide stereo audio data for mixing into the DSP's analog audio output before it leaves the console.^[53]

Since the audio subsystem is mostly self-contained, the state of the audio subsystem can be saved as an .SPC file, and the subsystem can be emulated in a stand-alone manner to play back all game music (except for a few games that constantly stream their samples from ROM).

[edit] Onboard RAM

Memory reference
Main RAM	128 KB
Video RAM	64 KB main RAM 512 + 32 bytes sprite RAM 256 × 15 bits palette RAM
Audio RAM	64 KB

The console contains 128 KB of DRAM. This is mapped to various segments of Bus A, and can also be accessed in a serial fashion via registers on Bus B. The video and audio subsystems contain additional RAM reserved for use by those processors.^[50]

[edit] Regional lockout

Nintendo employed several types of regional lockout, including both physical and hardware incompatibilities.

A cartridge shape comparison
Top: Japanese and PAL design
Bottom: North American design

The top image also illustrates the optional pins used by enhancement chips.

On a physical level, the cartridges are shaped differently for different regions. North American cartridges have a rectangular bottom with inset grooves matching protruding tabs in the console, while other regions' cartridges are narrower with a smooth curve on the front and no grooves. The physical incompatibility can be overcome with use of various adapters, or through modification of the console.^[54]

Internally, a regional lockout chip (CIC) within the console and in each cartridge prevents PAL region games from being played on Japanese or North American consoles and vice versa. The Japanese and North American machines have the same region chip. The console CIC releases the reset signal to the rest of the system only after completing a handshake with the chip in the cartridge.^[54] This can be overcome through the use of adapters, typically by inserting the imported cartridge in one slot and a cartridge with the correct region chip in a second slot. Alternatively, disconnecting one pin of the console's lockout chip will prevent it from locking the console; hardware in later games can detect this situation, so it later became common to install a switch to reconnect the lockout chip as needed.^[55]

PAL consoles face another incompatibility when playing out-of-region cartridges: the NTSC video standard specifies video at 60 Hz while PAL operates at 50 Hz, resulting in approximately 16.7% slower gameplay. Additionally, PAL's higher resolution results in letterboxing of the output image. Some commercial PAL region releases exhibit this same problem and therefore can be played in NTSC systems without issue, while others will face a 20% speedup if played in an NTSC console. To mostly correct this issue, a switch can be added to place the SNES PPU into a 60 Hz mode supported by most PAL televisions. Later games will detect this setting and refuse to run, requiring the switch to be thrown only after the check completes.^[56]

[edit] Casing


Original Japanese version	Original North American version	Original PAL version	Super Famicom Jr.

All versions of the SNES are predominantly gray, although the exact shade may differ. The original North American version has a boxy design with purple sliding switches and a dark gray eject lever. The Japanese and European versions are more rounded, with darker gray accents and buttons. The North American SNES 2 and the Japanese Super Famicom Jr. are both smaller with a rounded contour, however the SNES 2 buttons are purple where the Super Famicom Jr. buttons are gray.

All versions incorporate a top-loading slot for game cartridges, although the shape of the slot differs between regions to match the different shapes of the cartridges. The card-edge connector has 62 pads, however many cartridges only connect to the middle 46. All versions also incorporate two 7-pin controller ports on the front of the unit, and a plug for a power supply and a Nintendo-proprietary "multi-out" A/V connector on the back.^[53] The multi-out connector, later used on the Nintendo 64 and GameCube, can output RF, RGB, S-Video, and composite video signals.^[54] Original versions additionally include a 28-pin expansion port under a small cover on the bottom of the unit^[53] and a standard RF output with channel selection switch on the back; newer versions use the RF capability of the multi-out connector.

[edit] Game cartridge

While the SNES can address 128 Mb (Mib), only 117.75 Mb are actually available for cartridge use. A fairly normal mapping could easily address up to 95 Mb of ROM data (48 Mb at FastROM speed) with 8 Mb of battery-backed RAM.^[49] However, most available memory access controllers only support mappings of up to 32 Mb. The largest games released (Star Ocean and Tales of Phantasia) contain 48 Mb of ROM data, while smallest games contain only 2 Mb.

Cartridges may also contain battery-backed SRAM to save the game state, extra working RAM, custom coprocessors, or any other hardware that will not exceed the maximum current rating of the console.

[edit] Peripherals

The European and Australasian SNES controller

The SNES standard controller adds two additional face buttons to the design of the NES iteration, arranging the four in a diamond shape, and the layout adds two shoulder buttons. It also features an ergonomic design later used for the NES 2. The Japanese and PAL region versions incorporate the system's logo in the colors of the four action buttons, while the North American version colors them lavender and purple to match the redesigned console. The North American version also differs in that the X and Y buttons are concave while the A and B buttons are convex (like PAL and JP region controller face buttons). Many believe that several later consoles derive their controller design from the SNES, including the PlayStation, PS2, PS3, Dreamcast, Xbox, Xbox 360, and Wii (Classic Controller).^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62]

Throughout the course of its life, a number of peripherals were released which added to the functionality of the SNES. Many of these devices were modeled after earlier add-ons for the NES: the Super Scope is a light gun functionally similar to the NES Zapper (though the Super Scope features wireless capabilities) and the Super Advantage is an arcade-style joystick with adjustable turbo settings akin to the NES Advantage. Nintendo also released the SNES Mouse in conjunction with its Mario Paint title. Hudson Soft, under license from Nintendo, released the Super Multitap, a multiplayer adapter for use with its popular series of Bomberman games. Some of the more unusual controllers include the one-handed ASCII Stick L5, the BatterUP baseball bat, and the TeeV Golf golf club.^[63]

While Nintendo never released an adapter for playing NES games on the SNES, the Super Game Boy adapter cartridge allows games designed for Nintendo's portable Game Boy system to be played on the SNES. The Super Game Boy touted several feature enhancements over the Game Boy, including palette substitution, custom screen borders, and (for specially enhanced games) access to the SNES console.^[64]

Like the NES before it, the SNES saw its fair share of unlicensed third-party peripherals, including a new version of the Game Genie cheat cartridge designed for use with SNES games and a variety of game copier devices. In general, Nintendo proved to be somewhat more tolerant of unlicensed SNES peripherals than they had been with NES peripherals.

Soon after the release of the SNES, companies began marketing backup devices such as the Super Wildcard, Super Pro Fighter Q, and Game Doctor.^[65] These devices were sold to create a backup of a cartridge, in the event that it would break. However, they could also be used to play copied ROM images that could be downloaded from BBSes and the Internet, or to create copies of rented video games, often violating copyright laws in many jurisdictions.

Satellaview with Super Famicom.

Japan saw the release of the Satellaview, a modem which attached to the Super Famicom's expansion port and connected to the St. GIGA satellite radio station. Users of the Satellaview could download gaming news and specially designed games, which were frequently either remakes of or sequels to older Famicom titles, released in installments. Satellaview signals were broadcast from April 23, 1995 through June 30, 2000.^[66] In the United States, the similar but relatively short-lived XBAND allowed users to connect to a network via a dial-up modem to compete against other players around the country.

During the SNES's life, Nintendo contracted with two different companies to develop a CD-ROM-based peripheral for the console to compete with Sega's CD-ROM based addon, Sega CD. Ultimately, negotiations with both Sony and Philips fell through, and Sony went on to develop its own console based on its initial dealings with Nintendo (the PlayStation), with Philips gaining the right to release a series of titles based on Nintendo franchises for its CD-i multimedia player.^[67]

[edit] Enhancement chips

Main article: List of Super NES enhancement chips

Star Fox, the first game to utilize the Super FX chip, as shown with the polygonal models that compose a large portion of the game's graphics

As part of the overall plan for the SNES, rather than include an expensive CPU that would still become obsolete in a few years, the hardware designers made it easy to interface special coprocessor chips to the console. This is most often characterized by 16 additional pins on the cartridge card edge.^[53]

The Super FX is a RISC CPU designed to perform functions that the main CPU could not feasibly do. The chip was primarily used to create 3D game worlds made with polygons, texture mapping and light source shading. The chip could also be used to enhance 2D games.^[35]

The Nintendo fixed-point digital signal processor (DSP) chip allowed for fast vector-based calculations, bitmap conversions, both 2D and 3D coordinate transformations, and other functions.^[68] Four revisions of the chip exist, each physically identical but with different microcode. The DSP-1 version, including the later 1A and 1B bug fix revisions, was most often used; the DSP-2, DSP-3, and DSP-4 were used in only one title each.^[69]

Similar to the 5A22 CPU in the console, the SA-1 chip contains a 65c816 processor core clocked at 10 MHz, a memory mapper, DMA, decompression and bitplane conversion circuitry, several programmable timers, and CIC region lockout functionality.^[35]

In Japan, games could be downloaded for a fee from Nintendo Power kiosks onto special cartridges containing flash memory and a MegaChips MX15001TFC chip. The chip managed communication with the kiosks to download ROM images, and provided an initial menu to select which of the downloaded games would be played. Some titles were available both in cartridge and download form, while others were download only. The service was closed on February 8, 2007.^[70]

Many cartridges contain other enhancement chips, most of which were created for use by a single company in a few titles;^[69] the only limitations are the speed of the Super NES itself to transfer data from the chip and the current rating of the console.

[edit] Market share

As of March 31, 2006, 49.1 million Super NES units were sold worldwide, with 20 million of those units sold in the U.S. according to Nintendo.^[1]^[2]^[71] Although it could not quite repeat the success of the NES, which sold 61.9 million units worldwide as of March 31, 2006,^[72]^[2] the Super NES was the best-selling console of its era. The Mega Drive/Genesis came in second with 29 million sold worldwide,^[73]^[74]^[75] and the TurboGrafx-16 was third with 10 million sold worldwide.^[76]

PlayStation

2008-03-31T06:43:00.000-07:00

PlayStation (often abbreviated PS or PS1, and informally as the PSX) is a 32-bit video game console of the fifth generation that was first released by Sony Computer Entertainment in December 1994.^{[citation needed]}

The PlayStation was the first of the ubiquitous PlayStation series of console and hand-held game devices, which has included successor consoles and upgrades including the Net Yaroze (a special black PS with tools and instructions to program PS games and applications), PS one (a smaller version of the original), PocketStation (a handheld which enhances PS games and acts as a memory card), PlayStation 2, a revised, slimline PS2, PlayStation Portable (a handheld gaming console), a revised "PSP slim & lite", PSX (Japan only; a media center, DVR and DVD recorder based on the PS2), and PlayStation 3 (20GB, 40GB, 60GB, & 80GB). By March 31, 2005, the PlayStation and PS one had shipped a combined total of 102.49 million units,^[5] becoming the first video game console to reach the 100 million mark.^[7]

[hide]

[edit] History

An original PlayStation control pad. This model was later replaced by the Dual Analog, and then the DualShock.

According to the book "Game Over", by David Scheff, the first conceptions of the PlayStation date back to 1986. Nintendo had been attempting to work with disc technology since the Famicom, but the medium had problems. Its rewritable magnetic nature could be easily erased (thus leading to a lack of durability), and the discs were a copyright infringement danger. Consequently, when details of CDROM/XA (an extension of the CD-ROM format that combines compressed audio, visual and computer data, allowing all to be accessed simultaneously) came out, Nintendo was interested. CD-ROM/XA was being simultaneously developed by Sony and Phillips. Nintendo approached Sony to develop a CD-ROM add-on, tentatively titled the "SNES-CD". A contract was signed, and work began. Nintendo's choice of Sony was due to a prior dealing: Ken Kutaragi, the person who would later be dubbed "The Father of PlayStation", was the individual who had sold Nintendo on using the Sony SPC-700 processor for use as the eight-channel ADPCM sound synthesis set in the Super Famicom/SNES console through an impressive demonstration of the processor's capabilities.

Sony also planned to develop another, Nintendo compatible, Sony-branded console, but one which would be more of a home entertainment system playing both Super Nintendo cartridges and a new CD format which Sony would design. This was also to be the format used in SNES-CD discs, giving a large degree of control to Sony despite Nintendo's leading position in the video gaming market.

The DualShock controller.

The SNES-CD was to be announced at the June 1991 Consumer Electronics Show (CES). However, when Hiroshi Yamauchi read the original 1988 contract between Sony and Nintendo, he realized that the earlier agreement essentially handed Sony complete control over any and all titles written on the SNES CD-ROM format. Yamauchi decided that the contract was totally unacceptable and he secretly canceled all plans for the joint Nintendo-Sony SNES CD attachment. Instead of announcing a partnership between Sony and Nintendo, at 9 a.m. the day of the CES, Nintendo chairman Howard Lincoln stepped onto the stage and revealed that Nintendo was now allied with Philips, and Nintendo was planning on abandoning all the previous work Nintendo and Sony had accomplished. Lincoln and Minoru Arakawa had, unbeknown to Sony, flown to Philips headquarters in Europe and formed an alliance of a decidedly different nature—one that would give Nintendo total control over its licenses on Philips machines.

After the collapse of the joint project, Sony considered halting their research, but ultimately the company decided to use what they had developed so far and make it into a complete, stand alone console. As a result, Nintendo filed a lawsuit claiming breach of contract and attempted, in U.S. federal court, to obtain an injunction against the release of the PlayStation, on the grounds that Nintendo owned the name. The federal judge presiding over the case denied the injunction and, in October 1991, the first incarnation of the new Sony PlayStation was revealed. However, it is theorized that only 200 or so of these machines were ever produced.

PlayStation Memory Card

By the end of 1992, Sony and Nintendo reached a deal whereby the "Sony Play Station" would still have a port for SNES games, but Nintendo would own the rights and receive the bulk of the profits from the games, and the SNES would continue to use the Sony-designed audio chip. However, Sony decided in early 1993 to begin reworking the "Play Station" concept to target a new generation of hardware and software. As part of this process the SNES cartridge port was dropped and the space between the names was removed.

[edit] Launch

The PlayStation was launched in Japan on December 3, 1994, North America on September 9, 1995,^[2] Europe on September 29, 1995,^[3] and Australasia in November 1995.^[4] The launch price in the American market was US$299^[2] (a price point later used by its successor, the PlayStation 2),^[8] and Sony enjoyed a very successful launch with titles of almost every genre, including Battle Arena Toshinden, Twisted Metal, Warhawk, Philosoma, and Ridge Racer. Almost all of Sony's and Namco's launch titles went on to spawn numerous sequels.^{[citation needed]}

The PlayStation was also able to generate interest with a unique series of advertising campaigns. Many of the ads released at the time of launch were full of ambiguous content which had many gamers rabidly debating their meanings. The most well-known launch ads include the "Enos Lives" campaign, and the "U R Not e" ads (the "e" in "U R Not e" was always colored in red, to symbolize the word "ready", and the "Enos" meant "ready Ninth Of September", the U.S. launch date). The Enos ad could also be read as Sony written backward with phonetic sound of "E" replacing the "y". It is believed that these ads were an attempt to play off the gaming public's suspicion towards Sony as an unknown, untested entity in the video game market. The PlayStation 3 slogan, "PLAY B3YOND", resembles this slogan, as the 3 is red.

The PlayStation logo was designed by Manabu Sakamoto, who also designed the logo for Sony's VAIO computer products.

[edit] Titles

See also: Chronology of PlayStation games and List of PlayStation 1 games

As of September 30, 2007, 7,978 software titles have been released worldwide (counting games released in multiple regions as separate titles).^[9] As of March 31, 2007, the cumulative software shipment was at 962 million units.^[10] The very last game for the system was FIFA Football 2005.^{[citation needed]}

The OK and Cancel buttons on most of the Japanese PlayStation games are reversed in their North American and European releases. In Japan, the button (maru, right) is universally used as the OK button, while the button (batsu, wrong) is used as the Cancel one. North American and European releases have the button or the buttons as the OK button, while the or the buttons are used as the Cancel ones. However, a few games such as Squaresoft's Vagrant Story, Final Fantasy VII, and Final Fantasy Tactics, and Konami's Metal Gear Solid, have the buttons remain in the same Japanese configuration in their North American and European releases. These Japanese button layouts still apply to other PlayStation consoles, such as the PlayStation Portable (PSP), PlayStation 2 and the PlayStation 3. This is because in the early years Sony America (SCEA), Sony Europe (SCEE) and Sony Japan (SCEJ) had different development and testing documents (TRCs) for their respective territories.

[edit] Production run

Lasting over 11 years, the PlayStation enjoyed one of the longest production runs in the video game industry. On March 23, 2006, Sony announced the end of production.^[11]

[edit] Variants

Developer's kit PlayStation

The PlayStation went through a number of variants during its production run, each accompanied by a change in the part number. From an external perspective, the most notable change was the gradual reduction in the number of external connectors on the unit. This started very early on—the original Japanese launch units (SCPH-1000) had an S-Video port, which was removed on the next release. This also led to the strange situation where the US and European launch units had the same part number series (SCPH-100x) as the Japanese launch units, but had different hardware (Rev. C silicon and no S-Video port)—they were the same as the Japanese SCPH-3000, so for consistency should have been SCPH-3001 and SCPH-3002 (this numbering was used for the Yaroze machines, which were based on the same hardware and numbered DTL-H3000, DTL-H3001, and DTL-H3002). This series of machines had a reputation for CD drive problems—the optical pickup sled was made of thermoplastic, and eventually developed wear spots that moved the laser into a position where it was no longer parallel with the CD surface—a modification was made that replaced the sled with a die-cast one with hard nylon inserts, which corrected the problem.

With the release of the next series (SCPH-500x), the numbers moved back into sync. A number of changes were made to the unit internally (CD drive relocated, shielding simplified, PSU wiring simplified) and the RCA jacks and RFU power connectors were removed from the rear panel. This series also contained the SCPH-550x and SCPH-555x units, but these appear to have been bundle changes rather than actual hardware revisions.

These were followed by the SCPH-700x and SCHP-750x series—they are externally identical to the SCPH-500x machines, but have internal changes made to reduce manufacturing costs (for example, the system RAM went from 4 chips to 1, and the CD controller went from 3 chips to 1).

The final revision to the original PlayStation was the SCPH-900x series—these had the same hardware as the SCPH-750x machines with the exception of the removal of the parallel port and a slight reduction in the size of the PCB. The removal of the parallel port was probably partly because no official add-on had ever been released for it, and partly because it was being used to connect cheat cartridges that could be used to defeat the copy prevention.

The PS one was based on substantially the same hardware as the SCPH-750x and 900x, but had the serial port removed, the controller / memory card ports moved to the main PCB and the power supply replaced with a DC-DC converter that was also on the main PCB.

With the early units, many gamers experienced skipping full-motion video or dreaded physical "ticking" noises coming from their PlayStations. The problem appears to have come from poorly placed vents leading to overheating in some environments—the plastic moldings inside the console would warp very slightly and create knock-on effects with the laser assembly. The solution was to ensure the console was sat on a surface which dissipated heat efficiently in a well vented area, or raise the unit up slightly by propping something at its edges. A common fix for already affected consoles was to turn the PlayStation sideways or upside-down (thereby using gravity to cancel the effects of the warped interior) although some gamers smacked the lid of the PlayStation to make a game load or work.

Sony then released a version dubbed "Dual Shock", which included a controller with 2 analog sticks and a built in force-feedback feature.

Another version that was colored blue (as opposed to regular console units that were grey in color) was available to game developers and select press. Later versions of this were colored green—on a technical level, these units were almost identical to the retail units, but had a different CD controller in them that did not require the region code found on all pressed disks, since they were intended to be used with CD-R media for debugging. This also allowed the use of discs from different regions, but this was not officially supported; different debug stations existed for each region. The two different color cases were not cosmetic—the original blue debug station (DTL-H100x, DTL-H110x) contained "Revision B" silicon, the same as the early retail units (these units had silicon errata that needed software workarounds), the green units (DTL-H120x) had Rev. C hardware. As part of the required tests, the user had to test the title on both. Contrary to popular belief, the RAM was the same as the retail units at 2 MB. The firmware was nearly identical—the only significant change was that debug printf()s got sent to the serial port if the title didn't open it for communications—this used a DTL-H3050 serial cable (the same as the one used for the Yaroze).

A white version was also produced that had the ability to play VCDs—this was only sold in Asia, since that format never really caught on anywhere else. From a developer perspective, the white PSX could be treated exactly like any other NTSC:J PlayStation.

The PS1 with a model number of SCPH-1001 has been reported to be a very good sounding compact disc player rivaling audiophile CD players from high end audio manufacturers.^[12]

[edit] Hacks

A number of these units appeared on the secondary market and were popular because they would run games from any region and CD-R copies, which tended to result in them commanding high prices. All the blue units tend to have CD problems, but the DTL-H110x units (with an external PSU block) are significantly more reliable than the original DTL-H100x ones.

[edit] "Chipped" consoles

The installation of a modchip allowed the PlayStation's capabilities to be expanded, and several options were made available. By the end of the system's life cycle almost anyone with minimal soldering experience was able to realize the modification of the console. Such a modification allowed the playing of games from other regions, such as PAL titles on a NTSC console, or allowed the ability to play copies of original games without restriction. Modchips allow the playing of games recorded on a regular CD-R. This created a wave of games developed without official approval using free GNU compiler tools, as well as the reproduction of original discs. With the introduction of such devices the console was very attractive to programmers and illegal copiers alike.

Anyone seeking to create copies of games that would work correctly faced several issues at the time, as the discs that were produced by Sony were designed to be difficult to copy — and impossible to copy on recordable media. Discs were manufactured with a black-colored plastic, transparent only to the infrared radiation used by the CD-ROM drive's laser. This was found to offer little protection. Additionally, the discs were mastered with a specific wobble in the lead-in area. This wobble encodes a four-character sequence which is checked by the CD-ROM drive's controller chip. The drive will only accept the disc if the code is correct. This string varies depending on the region of the disk—"SCEI" for NTSC:J machines, "SCEA" for NTSC:U/C machines, "SCEE" for PAL machines and "SCEW" for the Net Yaroze. Since the tracking pattern is pressed into the disc at the time of manufacture, this cannot be reproduced on a CD-R recorder. Some companies (notably Datel) did manage to produce discs that booted on unmodified retail units, but this required special equipment and can only be done with "pressed" discs. However, inexpensive modchips were created that simply injected the code to the appropriate connections to the controller chip, which provided an easy way of bypassing these measures. The other issue is that most PC drives used Mode 1 or Mode 2/Form 1 (2048 bytes/sector) and the PSX uses a mixed-mode format with most data in Mode 2/Form 1 and streaming audio/video data in Mode 2/Form 2, which most CD-R drives at the time could not handle well. Newer drives were able to correctly handle these variations.

The creation and mass-production of these inexpensive modchips, coupled with their ease of installation, marked the beginning of widespread console videogame copyright infringement. Coincidentally, CD-ROM burners were made available around this time. Prior to the PlayStation, the reproduction of copyrighted material for gaming consoles was restricted to either enthusiasts with exceptional technical ability, or others that had access to CD manufacturers. With this console, amateurs could replicate anything Sony was producing for a mere fraction of the MSRP.

[edit] Net Yaroze

A version of the PlayStation called the Net Yaroze was also produced. It was more expensive than the original PlayStation, colored black instead of the usual gray, and most importantly, came with tools and instructions that allowed a user to be able to program PlayStation games and applications without the need for a full developer suite, which cost many times the amount of a PlayStation and was only available to approved video game developers. Naturally, the Net Yaroze lacked many of the features the full developer suite provided. Programmers were also limited by the 2 MB of total game space that Net Yaroze allowed. That means the entire game had to be crammed into the 2 MB of system RAM. The user couldn't officially make actual game discs. The amount of space may seem small, but games like Ridge Racer ran entirely from the system RAM (except for the streamed music tracks). It was unique in that it was the only officially retailed Sony PlayStation with no regional lockout; it would play games from any territory.

PS one with LCD screen and a DualShock controller

[edit] PS one

The PS one (also PSone, PSOne, or PS1), launched in 2000, is Sony's smaller (and redesigned) version of its PlayStation video game console. The PS one is about one-third smaller than the original PlayStation (38mm × 193 mm × 144 mm versus 45 mm × 260 mm × 185 mm). It was released in July 7, 2000,^[13] and went on to outsell all other consoles—including Sony's own brand-new PlayStation 2—throughout the remainder of the year. Sony also released a small LCD screen and an adaptor to power the unit for use in cars. The PS one is fully compatible with all PlayStation software. The PlayStation is now officially abbreviated as the "PS1" or "PS one." There were three differences between the "PS one" and the original, the first one being cosmetic change to the console, the second one was the home menu's Graphical User Interface, and the third being added protection against the mod-chip by changing the internal layout and making previous-generation mod-chip devices unusable. The PS one also lacks the original PlayStation's serial port, which allowed multiple consoles to be hooked up for multi-TV multiplayer. The serial port could also be used for an external mod-chip, which may have been why it was removed,^{[citation needed]} although size-constraints may also be to blame.

[edit] Summary of PlayStation models

The last digit of the PlayStation model number denotes the region in which it was sold:

0 is Japan (Japanese boot ROM, NTSC:J region, NTSC Video, 100V PSU)
1 is USA/Canada (English boot ROM, NTSC:U/C region, NTSC Video, 110V PSU)
2 is Europe/PAL (English boot ROM, PAL region, PAL Video, 220V PSU)
3 is Asia (Japanese boot ROM, NTSC:J region, NTSC video, 220V PSU)

[edit] Consumer models

Model:	Case:	BIOS:	Hardware:	Region:	A/V Direct Out:	Parallel Port:	Serial Port:	Sound Scope:	Notes:
SCPH-1000	Original (Grey)	Unknown (09/22/94)	Rev. A	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. S-Video direct out.
SCPH-1001	Original (Grey)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-U/C	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Based on SCPH-3000 series.
SCPH-1002	Original (Grey)	2.0 (05/10/95)	Rev. B	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Based on SCPH-3000 series.
SCPH-1002	Original (Grey)	2.1 (07/17/95)	Rev. B	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Based on SCPH-3000 series.
SCPH-1002	Original (Grey)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. B	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Based on SCPH-3000 series.
SCPH-3000	Original (Grey)	1.1 (01/22/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive.
SCPH-3500	Original (Grey)	2.1 (07/17/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5000	Original (Grey)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No	CD-ROM drive re-located on right side of CD bay. A/V direct out and RFU power connector removed. Model numbers synchronized worldwide.
SCPH-5001	Original (Grey)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5002	Original (Grey)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	PAL	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5003	Original (Grey)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5500	Original (Grey)	3.0 (09/09/96)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5501	Original (Grey)	3.0 (11/18/96)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5502	Original (Grey)	3.0 (01/06/97)	Rev. C	PAL	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5503	Original (Grey)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-5552	Original (Grey)	3.0 (01/06/97)	Rev. C	PAL	No	Yes	Yes	No	A very rare Men in Black promotional model exists with a black case and the films logo on the CD lid.
SCPH-5903	Original (White)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Only model capable of playing Video CD movies.
SCPH-7000	Original (Grey)	4.0 (08/18/97)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No	DualShock now standard. Introduction of Sound Scope. Available in midnight blue as promotional item to celebrate the 10 millionth PlayStation sold.
SCPH-7001	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	No	Yes	Yes	No	DualShock now standard. Introduction of Sound Scope. Available in midnight blue as promotional item to celebrate the 10 millionth PlayStation sold.
SCPH-7002	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	PAL	No	Yes	Yes	No	DualShock now standard. Available in midnight blue as promotional item to celebrate the 10 millionth PlayStation sold.
SCPH-7003	Original (Grey)	3.0 (11/18/96)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-7500	Original (Grey)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-7501	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-7502	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	PAL	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-7503	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	Yes	Yes	No
SCPH-9000	Original (Grey)	4.0 (08/18/97)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	No	Yes	Yes	High quality CD-ROM drive. Introduction of Sound Scope. Parallel port removed.
SCPH-9001	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	No	No	Yes	Yes	High quality CD-ROM drive. Parallel port removed.
SCPH-9002	Original (Grey)	4.1 (12/16/97)	Rev. C	PAL	No	No	Yes	Yes	High quality CD-ROM drive. Parallel port removed.
SCPH-9003	Original (Grey)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	No	Yes	Yes	High quality CD-ROM drive. Parallel port removed.
SCPH-100	PS one (White)	4.3 (03/11/00)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	No	No	Yes	Redesigned smaller case. Controller and memory card ports integrated onto motherboard. Serial port removed. Has external power supply.
SCPH-101	PS one (White)	4.5 (05/25/00)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	No	No	No	Yes	Redesigned smaller case. Controller and memory card ports integrated onto motherboard. Serial port removed. Has external power supply.
SCPH-102	PS one (White)	4.4 (03/24/00)	Rev. C	PAL	No	No	No	Yes	Redesigned smaller case. Controller and memory card ports integrated onto motherboard. Serial port removed. Has external power supply.
SCPH-102	PS one (White)	4.5 (05/25/00)	Rev. C	PAL	No	No	No	Yes	Redesigned smaller case. Controller and memory card ports integrated onto motherboard. Serial port removed. Has external power supply.
SCPH-103	PS one (White)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	No	No	No	Yes	Redesigned smaller case. Controller and memory card ports integrated onto motherboard. Serial port removed. Has external power supply.

[edit] Specialty models

Model:	Case:	BIOS:	Hardware:	Region:	A/V Direct Out:	Parallel Port:	Serial Port:	Sound Scope:	Notes:
DTL-H1000	Original (Blue)	Unknown (09/22/94)	Rev. A	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. S-Video direct out. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1000H	Original (Blue)	1.1 (01/22/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1001	Original (Blue)	2.0 (05/07/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-U/C	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1001H	Original (Blue)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. B	NTSC-U/C	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1002	Original (Blue)	2.0 (05/10/95)	Rev. B	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1100	Original (Blue)	2.2 (03/06/96)	Rev. B	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies. Has external power supply.
DTL-H1101	Original (Blue)	2.1 (07/17/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-U/C	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies. Has external power supply.
DTL-H1102	Original (Blue)	2.1 (07/17/95)	Rev. B	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies. Has external power supply.
DTL-H1200	Original (Green)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. C	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1201	Original (Green)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. C	NTSC-U/C	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H1202	Original (Green)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. C	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Debugger. Can play games from any region and CD-R copies.
DTL-H3000	Original (Black)	Unknown (Unknown)	Rev. B	NTSC-J	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Net Yaroze hobbyist development system. Can play games from any region but not CD-R copies.
DTL-H3001	Original (Black)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. B	NTSC-U/C	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Net Yaroze hobbyist development system. Can play games from any region but not CD-R copies.
DTL-H3002	Original (Black)	2.2 (12/04/95)	Rev. B	PAL	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Low quality CD-ROM drive. Net Yaroze hobbyist development system. Can play games from any region but not CD-R copies.

[edit] Legacy

The success of the PlayStation is widely believed to have influenced the demise of the cartridge-based home console. While not the first system to utilize an optical disc format, it was the first success story, and ended up going head-to-head with the last major home console to rely on proprietary cartridges—the Nintendo 64.

Nintendo was very public about its skepticism toward using CDs and DVDs to store games, citing longer load times and durability issues. It was widely speculated that the company was even more concerned with copyright infringement, given its substantial reliance on licensing and exclusive titles for its revenue.

The increasing complexity of games (in content, graphics, and sound) pushed cartridges to their storage limits and this fact began to turn off third party developers. Also, CDs were appealing to publishers due to the fact that they could be produced at a significantly lower cost and offered more flexibility (it was easy to change production to meet demand). In turn, they were able to pass the lower costs onto consumers. One major industry disadvantage of CDs was illegal copying due to the advent of CD burners and mod chips. However, this ironically became a selling point of the PlayStation. The PlayStation's production was discontinued on March 23, 2006.^[11]

This article or section may require restructuring to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
Please discuss this issue on the talk page. This article has been tagged since December 2006.

[edit] Advertisement controversy

To celebrate the ten-year anniversary of the PlayStation in 2005, Sony Italy released an advertisement portraying a young man wearing a crown of thorns (the thorns being made of , , and symbols, the labels on the buttons of PlayStation controllers), on his head. The ad was captioned with "Dieci anni di passione" (in English, this translates to "Ten years of passion"). The ad, assumed to be a takeoff of Mel Gibson's 2004 movie The Passion of the Christ, was met with outrage from the Vatican. Sony apologized and removed the advertisement. ^[14]

[edit] Quality of construction

The first batch of PlayStations used a KSM-440AAM laser unit whose case and all movable parts were completely made out of plastic. Over time, friction caused the plastic tray to wear out—usually unevenly. The placement of the laser unit close to the power supply accelerated wear because of the additional heat, which made the plastic even more vulnerable to friction. Eventually, the tray would become so worn that the laser no longer pointed directly at the CD and games would no longer load. Sony eventually fixed the problem by making the tray out of die-cast metal and placing the laser unit farther away from the power supply on later models of the PlayStation.

A common, but temporary, fix to the laser problem was to tip the PlayStation on its side. This made the tray "hang" perpendicular to the CD, allowing the PlayStation to read the disc. Unfortunately, friction would continue to wear down the plastic tray and, eventually, the PlayStation would not read the disc.^{[citation needed]}

Some units, particularly the early 100x models, would be unable to play FMV or music correctly, resulting in skipping or freezing. In more extreme cases the PlayStation would only work correctly when used upside down.

[edit] Technical specifications

Central processing unit

An early PlayStation motherboard

MIPS R3000A-compatible (R3051) 32bit RISC chip running at 33.8688 MHz

The chip is manufactured by LSI Logic Corp. with technology licensed from SGI. The chip also contains the Geometry Transformation Engine and the Data Decompression Engine.

Features:

Operating Performance of 30 MIPS
Bus Bandwidth 132 MB/s
Instruction Cache 4 KB
Data Cache 1 KB (non associative, just 1024 bytes of mapped fast SRAM)

Geometry transformation engine

This engine is inside the main CPU chip. It gives it additional (vector-)math instructions used for the 3D graphics.

Features:

Operating performance of 66 MIPS
360,000 flat-shaded polygons per second
180,000 texture mapped and light-sourced polygons per second

Sony originally gave the polygon count as:

1.5 million flat-shaded polygons per second;
500,000 texture mapped and light-sourced polygons per second.

These figures were given as a ballpark figure for performance under optimal circumstances, and so are unrealistic under normal usage.

Data decompression engine

This engine is also inside the main CPU. It is responsible for decompressing images and video. Documented device mode is to read three RLE-encoded 16×16 macroblocks, run IDCT and assemble a single 16×16 RGB macroblock. Output data may be transferred directly to GPU via DMA. It is possible to overwrite IDCT matrix and some additional parameters, however MDEC internal instruction set was never documented.

Features:

Compatible with MJPEG and H.261 files
Operating Performance of 80 MIPS
Directly connected to CPU Bus

Graphics processing unit

This chip is separate to the CPU and handles all the 2D graphics processing, which includes the transformed 3D polygons.

Features:

Maximum of 16.7 million colors
Resolutions from 256×224 to 640×480
Adjustable frame buffer
Unlimited color lookup tables
Maximum of 24-bit color depth
Maximum of 4000 8×8 pixel sprites with individual scaling and rotation
Emulation of simultaneous backgrounds (for parallax scrolling)
Flat or Gouraud shading, and texture mapping

Sound processing unit

Features:

Can handle ADPCM sources with up to 24 channels and up to 44.1 kHz sampling rate

Memory

Main RAM: 2 MB
Video RAM: 1 MB
Sound RAM: 512 KB
CD-ROM Buffer: 32 KB
Operating System ROM: 512 KB
PlayStation Memory Cards have 128 KB of space in an EEPROM

CD-ROM drive

Features:

2x, with a maximum data throughput of 300 kB/s
XA Mode 2 Compliant
CD-DA (CD-Digital Audio)

Console Information

Console emulator

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Legal issues

[edit] Other uses

Neo Geo (console)

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Emulation

[edit] Technical aspects

[edit] ROM sizes and startup screens

[edit] Specifications

[edit] Processor

[edit] Memory

[edit] Display

[edit] Sound

[edit] Power

[edit] Dimensions

[edit] Storage

[edit] Collecting

[edit] Home cartridges

[edit] Arcade cartridges

[edit] Other Neo Geo systems

[edit] Graphical development

[edit] Screenshots

[edit] References

MAME

Contents

[edit] Design

[edit] Emulation philosophy

[edit] MAME releases

[edit] Game data

[edit] Parents and clones

[edit] Naming convention

[edit] User interface

[edit] Legal status of MAME

[edit] MAME license

[edit] MAME cabinets

Sega

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Origins and entry into the video game market (1940–1988)

[edit] Sega as a Major Console Manufacturer (1990-2001)

[edit] Sega Mega Drive/Genesis

[edit] Sega versus Accolade

[edit] Arcade successes

[edit] Sega Saturn

[edit] Sega Dreamcast

[edit] Shift to a software manufacturer (2001-2005)

[edit] Success again (2006-present)

[edit] Recognized company personnel

[edit] In-house studios

[edit] Subsidiary studios

[edit] Former Structure Prior to Sammy Merger

[edit] Hardware

[edit] Arcade boards

[edit] Consoles

[edit] Handhelds

[edit] Advertisement campaigns

Nintendo Entertainment System

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Bundle packages

[edit] Regional differences

[edit] Game controllers

[edit] Hardware design flaws

[edit] Third-party licensing

[edit] Unlicensed games

[edit] Hardware clones

[edit] Technical specifications

[edit] Chassis/casing

[edit] Central processing unit

[edit] Memory

[edit] Video

[edit] Audio

Super Nintendo Entertainment System

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